Acute diarrhea causes: Difference between revisions

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__NOTOC__
__NOTOC__
{{Acute diarrhea}}
{{Acute diarrhea}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{CK}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{CK}} {{Cherry}}
==Overview==
==Overview==
* The causes of acute  diarrhea are based on .
Common causes of acute [[diarrhea]] in both developing and developed nations are [[infections]]. [[Infectious]] agents responsible for majority of cases include [[Norovirus]], [[Salmonella]], [[Shigella]], [[Clostridium perfringens]], [[Staphylococcus aureus]], Rotavirus, [[Shigella]], [[ETEC|Enterotoxigenic E.coli]] ([[ETEC]]), [[Campylobacter]] and [[Cryptosporidium parvum]]. Less commonly, acute diarrhea may be be caused by [[Norwalk virus|Norwalk viruses]] or may be associated with [[Systemic infection|systemic infections]] including [[influenza]], [[Urinary tract infection|urinary tract infections]], and [[HIV AIDS|HIV infection]]. Other common causes of acute diarrhea include [[Food allergy|food allergies]] and drug side effects. Less commonly, acute [[diarrhea]] can be a [[symptom]] of the initial stages of systemic conditions including [[Ischemic colitis]], [[hyperthyroidism]], [[tropical sprue]] and with disorders of [[digestion]] and the [[absorption]].
* Common causes of acute [[diarrhea]] in children in both developing and developed nations are infections. Infectious gastroenterits is most commonly caused by [[Rota virus]], [[Shigella]], Enterotoxigenic E.coli [[ETEC]] , Campylobacter, Cryptosporidium parvum. Less commonly, acute diarrhea in children can be caused by Norwalk like viruses, can be associated with systemic infections including Influenza, UTI, Otitis media, HIV infection.


* Common causes of acute [[diarrhea]] in adults is also Infectious gastroenterits, commonly caused by [[Noro virus]], [[Salmonella]], [[Shigella]], [[Clostridium perfringens]], [[Staphylococcus aureus]]. Other common causes are food allergies, drug side effects. Less commonly acute [[diarrhea]] can be a symptom in the initial stages of systemic conditions including [[Ischemic colitis]], [[Hyperthyroidism]], [[Tropical sprue]]  and with disorders of digestion and absorption process.
==Causes==
==Causes==
Causes of acute diarrhea based on [[Infection|infectious agents]] are enlisted below. Common causes of diarrhea differ based on geographical location, food hygiene standards, sanitation, water supply, and the season. <ref name="pmid29344358">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mokomane M, Kasvosve I, de Melo E, Pernica JM, Goldfarb DM |title=The global problem of childhood diarrhoeal diseases: emerging strategies in prevention and management |journal=Ther Adv Infect Dis |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=29–43 |year=2018 |pmid=29344358 |pmc=5761924 |doi=10.1177/2049936117744429 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19450323">{{cite journal |vauthors=de Bruyn G |title=Diarrhoea in adults (acute) |journal=BMJ Clin Evid |volume=2008 |issue= |pages= |year=2008 |pmid=19450323 |pmc=2907942 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid29262044">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chiejina M, Samant H |title= |journal= |volume= |issue= |pages= |year= |pmid=29262044 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21726481">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dalby-Payne JR, Elliott EJ |title=Gastroenteritis in children |journal=BMJ Clin Evid |volume=2009 |issue= |pages= |year=2009 |pmid=21726481 |pmc=2907797 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23680352">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kotloff KL, Nataro JP, Blackwelder WC, Nasrin D, Farag TH, Panchalingam S, Wu Y, Sow SO, Sur D, Breiman RF, Faruque AS, Zaidi AK, Saha D, Alonso PL, Tamboura B, Sanogo D, Onwuchekwa U, Manna B, Ramamurthy T, Kanungo S, Ochieng JB, Omore R, Oundo JO, Hossain A, Das SK, Ahmed S, Qureshi S, Quadri F, Adegbola RA, Antonio M, Hossain MJ, Akinsola A, Mandomando I, Nhampossa T, Acácio S, Biswas K, O'Reilly CE, Mintz ED, Berkeley LY, Muhsen K, Sommerfelt H, Robins-Browne RM, Levine MM |title=Burden and aetiology of diarrhoeal disease in infants and young children in developing countries (the Global Enteric Multicenter Study, GEMS): a prospective, case-control study |journal=Lancet |volume=382 |issue=9888 |pages=209–22 |year=2013 |pmid=23680352 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60844-2 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23757337">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chhabra P, Payne DC, Szilagyi PG, Edwards KM, Staat MA, Shirley SH, Wikswo M, Nix WA, Lu X, Parashar UD, Vinjé J |title=Etiology of viral gastroenteritis in children <5 years of age in the United States, 2008-2009 |journal=J. Infect. Dis. |volume=208 |issue=5 |pages=790–800 |year=2013 |pmid=23757337 |doi=10.1093/infdis/jit254 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10804140">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pang XL, Honma S, Nakata S, Vesikari T |title=Human caliciviruses in acute gastroenteritis of young children in the community |journal=J. Infect. Dis. |volume=181 Suppl 2 |issue= |pages=S288–94 |year=2000 |pmid=10804140 |doi=10.1086/315590 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2007955">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cohen MB |title=Etiology and mechanisms of acute infectious diarrhea in infants in the United States |journal=J. Pediatr. |volume=118 |issue=4 Pt 2 |pages=S34–9 |year=1991 |pmid=2007955 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26584048">{{cite journal |vauthors=Irikura D, Monma C, Suzuki Y, Nakama A, Kai A, Fukui-Miyazaki A, Horiguchi Y, Yoshinari T, Sugita-Konishi Y, Kamata Y |title=Identification and Characterization of a New Enterotoxin Produced by Clostridium perfringens Isolated from Food Poisoning Outbreaks |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=e0138183 |year=2015 |pmid=26584048 |pmc=4652906 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0138183 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12826999">{{cite journal |vauthors=Surawicz CM |title=Antibiotic-associated diarrhea in children: how many dirty diapers? |journal=J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=2–3 |year=2003 |pmid=12826999 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
Causes of acute diarrhea based on [[Infection|infectious agents]] are enlisted below. Common causes of diarrhea differ based on geographical location, food hygiene standards, sanitation, water supply, and the season. The causes include the following:<ref name="pmid29344358">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mokomane M, Kasvosve I, de Melo E, Pernica JM, Goldfarb DM |title=The global problem of childhood diarrhoeal diseases: emerging strategies in prevention and management |journal=Ther Adv Infect Dis |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=29–43 |year=2018 |pmid=29344358 |pmc=5761924 |doi=10.1177/2049936117744429 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19450323">{{cite journal |vauthors=de Bruyn G |title=Diarrhoea in adults (acute) |journal=BMJ Clin Evid |volume=2008 |issue= |pages= |year=2008 |pmid=19450323 |pmc=2907942 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid29262044">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chiejina M, Samant H |title= |journal= |volume= |issue= |pages= |year= |pmid=29262044 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21726481">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dalby-Payne JR, Elliott EJ |title=Gastroenteritis in children |journal=BMJ Clin Evid |volume=2009 |issue= |pages= |year=2009 |pmid=21726481 |pmc=2907797 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23680352">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kotloff KL, Nataro JP, Blackwelder WC, Nasrin D, Farag TH, Panchalingam S, Wu Y, Sow SO, Sur D, Breiman RF, Faruque AS, Zaidi AK, Saha D, Alonso PL, Tamboura B, Sanogo D, Onwuchekwa U, Manna B, Ramamurthy T, Kanungo S, Ochieng JB, Omore R, Oundo JO, Hossain A, Das SK, Ahmed S, Qureshi S, Quadri F, Adegbola RA, Antonio M, Hossain MJ, Akinsola A, Mandomando I, Nhampossa T, Acácio S, Biswas K, O'Reilly CE, Mintz ED, Berkeley LY, Muhsen K, Sommerfelt H, Robins-Browne RM, Levine MM |title=Burden and aetiology of diarrhoeal disease in infants and young children in developing countries (the Global Enteric Multicenter Study, GEMS): a prospective, case-control study |journal=Lancet |volume=382 |issue=9888 |pages=209–22 |year=2013 |pmid=23680352 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60844-2 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23757337">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chhabra P, Payne DC, Szilagyi PG, Edwards KM, Staat MA, Shirley SH, Wikswo M, Nix WA, Lu X, Parashar UD, Vinjé J |title=Etiology of viral gastroenteritis in children <5 years of age in the United States, 2008-2009 |journal=J. Infect. Dis. |volume=208 |issue=5 |pages=790–800 |year=2013 |pmid=23757337 |doi=10.1093/infdis/jit254 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10804140">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pang XL, Honma S, Nakata S, Vesikari T |title=Human caliciviruses in acute gastroenteritis of young children in the community |journal=J. Infect. Dis. |volume=181 Suppl 2 |issue= |pages=S288–94 |year=2000 |pmid=10804140 |doi=10.1086/315590 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2007955">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cohen MB |title=Etiology and mechanisms of acute infectious diarrhea in infants in the United States |journal=J. Pediatr. |volume=118 |issue=4 Pt 2 |pages=S34–9 |year=1991 |pmid=2007955 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26584048">{{cite journal |vauthors=Irikura D, Monma C, Suzuki Y, Nakama A, Kai A, Fukui-Miyazaki A, Horiguchi Y, Yoshinari T, Sugita-Konishi Y, Kamata Y |title=Identification and Characterization of a New Enterotoxin Produced by Clostridium perfringens Isolated from Food Poisoning Outbreaks |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=e0138183 |year=2015 |pmid=26584048 |pmc=4652906 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0138183 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12826999">{{cite journal |vauthors=Surawicz CM |title=Antibiotic-associated diarrhea in children: how many dirty diapers? |journal=J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=2–3 |year=2003 |pmid=12826999 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


==== Bacterial causes of diarrhea ====
==== Bacterial causes of diarrhea ====
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*[[Cytomegalovirus infection|CMV]]
*[[Cytomegalovirus infection|CMV]]
*[[Astrovirus]]
*[[Astrovirus]]
*Norwalk virus
*[[Norwalk virus]]
'''Protozoa''':
'''Protozoa'''
* [[Entamoeba histolytica]]  
* [[Entamoeba histolytica]]  
* [[Cryptosporidium parvum]]
* [[Cryptosporidium parvum]]
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* [[VIPoma]]
* [[VIPoma]]
* [[Infectious colitis]]
* [[Infectious colitis]]
'''Disorders of digestive/absorptive processes''':
'''Disorders of digestive/absorptive processes'''
*[[Glucose-galactose malabsorption]]
*[[Glucose-galactose malabsorption]]
*[[Sucrase-isomaltase deficiency]]
*[[Sucrase-isomaltase deficiency]]
*Late-onset (adult-type) [[Lactose intolerance|hypolactasia]], leads to [[lactose intolerance]]  
*Late-onset (adult-type) [[Lactose intolerance|hypolactasia]], leads to [[lactose intolerance]]  
'''Medicatons''':
'''Medications'''
*[[Antibiotic|Antibiotics]], mostly with [[Cephalosporin|Cephalosporins]]
*[[Antibiotic|Antibiotics]], mostly with [[Cephalosporin|Cephalosporins]]
*[[Magnesium carbonate|Magnesium containing antacids]]
*[[Magnesium carbonate|Magnesium containing antacids]]
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'''Ingestion of plants''' (eg, hyacinths, daffodils, [[Amanita|Amanita species mushrooms]])
'''Ingestion of plants''' (eg, hyacinths, daffodils, [[Amanita|Amanita species mushrooms]])


'''Food allergies''':
'''Food allergies'''
*Cow's milk protein allergy
*Cow's milk protein allergy
*Soy protein allergy
*Soy protein allergy
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'''Opium withdrawal'''
'''Opium withdrawal'''
===Life threatening causes===
Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.
{{MultiCol|80%}}
*[[Acute appendicitis]]
*[[Acute kidney failure]]
*[[Acute pancreatitis]]
*[[Anaphylaxis]]
*[[Angioedema]]
*[[Carbon monoxide poisoning]]
*[[Digoxin warnings and precautions|Digoxin toxicity]]
*[[Ergotism]]
*[[Food poisoning]]
*[[Heavy metal poisoning]]
*[[Herbal extract|Herbal extract overdose]]
*[[Infectious diarrhea]]
*[[Inflammatory bowel disease]]
*[[Insect bites and stings|Insect bite allergy]]
*[[Intususception]]
{{ColBreak}}
*[[Ischemic colitis]]
*[[Organophosphate poisoning]]
*[[Pesticide poisoning]]
*[[Pseudomembranous colitis]]
*[[Severe combined immunodeficiency]]
*[[Staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome]]
*[[Waterhouse-Friederichsen syndrome]]
{{EndMultiCol}}
===Common Causes===
{{MultiCol|80%}}
*[[ACE inhibitors]]
*[[Alcohol intoxication]]
*[[Alcohol withdrawal]]
*[[Amebiasis]]
*[[AIDS medical therapy#Anti Retroviral Therapy (ART)|Anti retroviral agents]]
*[[Antifungals]]
*[[Bacillary dysentery]]
*[[Bacterial toxin]]
*[[Bile acid sequestrant]]
*[[Campylobacter jejuni]]
*[[Cephalosporins]]
*[[Chemotherapeutic agents]]
{{ColBreak}}
*[[Cholestatic jaundice]]
*[[Citalopram]]
*[[Colitis]]
*[[Colorectal polyps]]
*[[Diabetic neuropathy]]
*[[Diverticulitis]]
*[[Doxycycline]]
*[[Entamoeba histolytica]]
*[[Escherichia coli]]
*[[Food poisoning]]
*[[Fosfomycin]]
*[[Helminthiasis]]
*[[Hepatitis A]]
*[[Hepatitis E]]
{{ColBreak}}
*[[Inflammatory bowel disease]]
*[[Lactose intolerance]]
*[[Macrolides]]
*[[Malabsorption syndrome]]
*[[Opioid withdrawal]]
*[[Proton pump inhibitors]]
*[[Pseudomembranous colitis]]
*[[Radiation sickness]]
*[[Salmonellosis]]
*[[Statins]]
*[[Thiazide diuretics]]
*[[Triptans]]
{{EndMultiCol}}
===Causes by Organ System===
{| style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
| style="width:25%" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" ; border="1" | '''Cardiovascular'''
| style="width:75%" bgcolor="Beige" ; border="1" | [[Portal vein thrombosis]], [[superior mesenteric artery syndrome]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Chemical / poisoning'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Acrodynia]],
[[Amlodipine besylate and Atorvastatin calcium trihydrate]],
[[zinc|acute zinc toxicity]],
[[arsenic poisoning]], [[Azacitidine]] , [[Cabozantinib]]
[[carbamate insecticide poisoning]],
[[carbon monoxide poisoning]],
[[chlordane|chlordane toxicity]],
[[chloroform|chloroform toxicity]],
[[Copper|copper toxicity]],
[[diazinon|diazinon poisoning]],
[[Glutaraldehyde|glutaraldehyde toxicity]],
[[heavy metal poisoning]],
[[lead poisoning]],
[[mercury poisoning]],
[[metal fume fever]],
[[Naphthalene|naphthalene poisoning]],
[[organophosphate poisoning]],
[[Paraquat|paraquat toxicity]],
[[Selenium|selenium toxicity]],
[[thallium|thallium toxicity]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dermatologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Acrodermatitis enteropathica]], [[necrotizing fasciitis]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Ambenonium]],
[[2C-B]],
[[5-HT3 antagonist]],
[[tryptamine|5-methoxy-diisopropyl tryptamine]],
[[abacavir]],
[[Acamprosate calcium]],
[[acarbose]],
[[acebutolol]],
[[Acetylcysteine]],
[[acyclovir]],
[[acitretin]],
[[aconitine]],
[[adefovir]],
[[afatinib]],
[[alatrofloxacin]],
[[albendazole]],
[[aldesleukin]],
[[Alemtuzumab]],
[[alendronate]],
[[aliskiren]],
[[allopurinol]],
[[alosetron]],
[[alpha-amanitin]],
[[alpha-glucosidase inhibitor]],
[[alprazolam]],
[[altretamine]],
[[ambenonium chloride]],
[[amifostine]],
[[amiloride]],
[[aminocaproic acid]],
[[aminophylline]],
[[amlexanox]],
[[amlodipine]],
[[Amlodipine besylate and Atorvastatin calcium trihydrate]],
[[ammonium lauryl sulfate]],
[[amoxicillin]],
[[amphetamine]],
[[amphotericin B]],
[[amprenavir]],
[[amitriptyline]],
[[anadenanthera peregrina]],
[[anagrelide]],
[[anakinra]],
[[anastrozole]],
[[Anidulafungin]],
[[anisindione]],
[[Apremilast]],
[[aprepitant]],
[[atazanavir]],
[[atenolol]],
[[atorvastatin]],
[[atovaquone]],
[[Atropine]],
[[auranofin]],
[[azithromycin]],
[[aztreonam]],
[[bacitracin]],
[[baclofen]],
[[barium nitrate]],
[[barium sulfate]],
[[Basiliximab]],
[[Benzphetamine]],
[[benazepril]],
[[bentiromide]],
[[bepridil]],
[[betaxolol]],
[[Bethanechol chloride]],
[[bevacizumab]],
[[bezafibrate]],
[[bicalutamide]],
[[biguanide]],
[[bisacodyl]],
[[bisoprolol]],
[[bortezomib]],
[[Bosutinib]],
[[bromocriptine]],
[[brompheniramine]],
[[bumetanide]],
[[buspirone]],
[[busulfan]],
[[candesartan]],
[[capecitabine]],
[[carbamazepine]],
[[carbidopa]],
[[carboplatin]],
[[carvedilol]],
[[cefaclor]],
[[cefadroxil]],
[[cefamandole nafate]],
[[cefazolin]],
[[cefazolin]],
[[cefdinir]],
[[Cefditoren]],
[[cefepime]],
[[Cefixime]],
[[cefoperazone]],
[[cefotaxime]],
[[cefotetan disodium]],
[[cefoxitin]],
[[cefpodoxime]],
[[Cefprozil]],
[[Ceftaroline fosamil]],
[[ceftazidime]],
[[Ceftibuten]],
[[ceftizoxime]],
[[ceftriaxone]],
[[cefuroxime]],
[[cephalexin]],
[[cephradine]],
[[Ceritinib]],
[[cerivastatin]],
[[cetuximab]],
[[cevimeline]],
[[Chenodiol]],
[[chloral hydrate]],
[[chlorambucil]],
[[chlordiazepoxide]],
[[chlorodyne]],
[[chlorothiazide]],
[[chlorpheniramine]],
[[Chlorpropamide]],
[[chlorthalidone]],
[[cholestyramine]],
[[ciclosporin]],
[[cidofovir]],
[[cilostazol]],,
[[cinacalcet]],
[[cisapride]],
[[citalopram]],
[[cladribine]],
[[clamoxyquine]],
[[clarithromycin]],
[[clavulanic acid]],
[[clindamycin]],
[[clofarabine]],
[[clofibrate]],
[[clomipramine]],
[[clonazepam]],
[[clopidogrel]],
[[clorazepate]],
[[Conjugated estrogens/bazedoxifene]],
[[colchicine]],
[[colistimethate]],
[[conjugated estrogens]],
[[Crizotinib]],
[[cyclophosphamide]],
[[cyproheptadine]],
[[cytarabine]],
[[dactinomycin]],
[[dalfopristin]],
[[dantrolene]],
[[daptomycin]],
[[darbepoetin alfa]],
[[darifenacin]],
[[darunavir]],
[[dasatinib]],
[[daunorubicin]],
[[deferasirox]],
[[delavirdine]],
[[demeclocycline]],
[[Denileukin diftitox]]
[[deracoxib]],
[[desoxyn]],
[[Dexchlorpheniramine]],
[[dextroamphetamine]],
[[dextromethorphan]],
[[diacerein]],
[[diazepam]],
[[diclofenac]],
[[dicloxacillin]],
[[didanosine]],
[[diflunisal]],
[[digitoxin]],
[[digoxin]],
[[diltiazem]],
[[dipyridamole]],
[[dirithromycin]],
[[disopyramide]],
[[docetaxel]],
[[dofetilide]],
[[dolasetron]],
[[donepezil]],
[[doripenem]],
[[doxorubicin]],
[[doxycycline]],
[[DTPA]],
[[duloxetine]],
[[Ecallantide]],
[[eculizumab]],
[[efavirenz]],
[[Elvitegravir]],
[[emtricitabine]],
[[Emtricitabine, Rilpivirine Hydrochloride, And Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate]]
[[enalapril]],
[[endosulfan]],
[[enoxacin]],
[[entacapone]],
[[Epirubicin hydrochloride]],
[[eplerenone]],
[[epoetin alfa]],
[[ergotamine]],
[[erlotinib]],
[[Eliglustat]],
[[erythromycin]],
[[esomeprazole]],
[[estazolam]],
[[estradiol]],
[[ethacrynic acid]],
[[ethosuximide]],
[[etidronate]],
[[etodolac]],
[[etoposide]],
[[exemestane]],
[[exenatide]],
[[ezetimibe]],
[[famciclovir]],
[[famotidine]],
[[felbamate]],
[[Ferric oxyhydroxide]],
[[fexofenadine]],
[[floxuridine]],
[[foscarnet sodium]],
[[fluconazole]],
[[flucytosine]],
[[fludarabine]],
[[fluoride]],
[[fluorouracil]],
[[fluoxetine]],
[[flurazepam]],
[[Flurbiprofen]],
[[flutamide]],
[[fluticasone]],
[[fluvastatin]],
[[fluvoxamine]],
[[fosamprenavir]],
[[foscarnet]],
[[fosinopril]],
[[frovatriptan]],
[[fulvestrant]],
[[gabapentin]],
[[galantamine]],
[[ganciclovir]],
[[gatifloxacin]],
[[gefitinib]],
[[gemcitabine]],
[[gemeprost]],
[[gemfibrozil]],
[[glatiramer]],
[[Glipizide]],
[[Glyburide and Metformin]],
[[glycopyrrolate]],
[[granisetron]],
[[griseofulvin]],
[[guanethidine]],
[[guanfacine]],
[[hydralazine]],
[[hydrochlorothiazide]],
[[hydroxychloroquine]],
[[Hydroxyprogesterone caproate]]
[[hydroxyurea]],
[[hyoscyamine]],
[[ibandronate]],
[[Ibritumomab Tiuxetan]]
[[ibuprofen]],
[[idarubicin]],
[[Idelalisib]],
[[Idursulfase]],
[[imatinib]],
[[Imiglucerase]]
[[infliximab]],
[[interferon alfacon-1 ]] ,
[[Interferon alfa-2b ]] ,
[[interferon beta-1b]],
[[irinotecan]] hydrochloride,
[[iron supplements]],
[[isocarboxazid]],
[[isradipine]],
[[itraconazole]],
[[Ivacaftor]],
[[Ivermectin]],
[[Ixabepilone]],
[[ketoconazole]],
[[Ketorolac tromethamine]],
[[Lactulose]],
[[lamivudine]],
[[lamotrigine]],
[[lanreotide]],
[[lansoprazole]],
[[lanthanum]],[[Lapatinib]],
[[leflunomide]],
[[lenalidomide]],
[[letrozole]],
[[leuprolide]],
[[levalbuterol]],
[[levetiracetam]],
[[Lenvatinib]],
[[levocarnitine]],
[[levodopa]],
[[levofloxacin]],
[[Linaclotide]],
[[Lincomycin Hydrochloride]],
[[linezolid]],
[[liothyronine sodium]],
[[lisinopril]],
[[lithium]],
[[lomefloxacin]],
[[lopinavir]],
[[loracarbef]],
[[loratadine]],
[[lorazepam]],
[[loxapine]],
[[magnesium hydroxide]],
[[mebendazole]],
[[mechlorethamine]],
[[meclofenamate]],
[[Mercaptopurine]],
[[mefenamic acid]],
[[mefloquine]],
[[megestrol]],
[[Meloxicam]],
[[meprobamate]],
[[mercaptopurine]],
[[meropenem]],
[[mesalazine]],
[[mesna]],
[[mesoridazine]],
[[Metirosine]],
[[metformin]],
[[methamphetamine]],
[[methenamine]],
[[methotrexate]],
[[methoxychlor]],
[[methsuximide]],
[[methyclothiazide]],
[[methylergonovine]],
[[methyprylon]],
[[metoclopramide]],
[[metolachlor]],
[[metolazone]],
[[metoprolol]],
[[metronidazole]],
[[Micafungin sodium]],
[[miconazole]],
[[mifepristone]],
[[miglitol]],
[[Miglustat]],
[[miltefosine]]
[[minocycline]],
[[misoprostol]],
[[mitotane]],
[[mitoxantrone]],
[[moclobemide]],
[[modafinil]],
[[moexipril]],
[[moricizine]],
[[moxifloxacin]],
[[mycophenolate]],
[[nabumetone]],
[[nafcillin]],
[[naltrexone]],
[[naphthalene]],
[[naproxen and esomeprazole magnesium]],
[[natalizumab]],
[[natamycin]],
[[nateglinide]],
[[nelfinavir]],
[[nevirapine]],
[[Niacin/simvastatin]],
[[niclosamide]],
[[Nilotinib]],
[[Nintedanib]],
[[nizatidine]],
[[norfloxacin]],
[[nystatin]],
[[ofloxacin]],
[[Olsalazine]],
[[omalizumab]],
[[omeprazole]],
[[ondansetron]],
[[oseltamivir]],
[[oxaliplatin]],
[[oxazepam]],
[[oxcarbazepine]],
[[oxtriphylline]],
[[oxybutynin]],
[[Palbociclib]],
[[palivizumab]],
[[pancrelipase]],
[[Panitumumab]],
[[pantoprazole]],
[[Paromomycin sulfate]],
[[Paroxetine]],
[[Pasireotide]],
[[pegaspargase]],
[[peginterferon alfa-2a]],
[[peginterferon alfa-2b]],
[[pemetrexed]],
[[pemoline]],
[[penbutolol]],
[[penicillin]],
[[pentamidine]],
[[pentostatin]],
[[pergolide]],
[[perindopril]],
[[perphenazine]],
[[Pertuzumab]],
[[phenazopyridine]],
[[Phenoxymethylpenicillin]],
[[phentermine]],
[[pilocarpine]],
[[pimecrolimus]],
[[pimozide]],
[[Pirfenidone]],
[[piroxicam]],
[[Plerixafor]],
[[Potassium iodide]],
[[plicamycin]],
[[polythiazide]],
[[posaconazole]],
[[Potassium chloride]],
[[Potassium citrate]],
[[pramipexole]],
[[pramlintide]],
[[prazepam]],
[[praziquantel]],
[[prazosin]],
[[procainamide]],
[[procarbazine]],
[[promethazine]],
[[propafenone]],
[[propranolol]],
[[permethrin]],
[[protriptyline]],
[[pseudoephedrine]],
[[Pyrantel pamoate]],
[[pyridostigmine]],
[[quinapril]],
[[quinidine]],
[[quinupristin]],
[[rabeprazole]],
[[Radium chloride]],
[[ramipril]],
[[Ramucirumab]],
[[ranitidine]],
[[rasagiline]],
[[Rasburicase]],
[[repaglinide]],
[[reserpine]],
[[retapamulin]],
[[ribavirin]],
[[rifabutin]],
[[rifampin]],
[[rilmenidine]],
[[riluzole]],
[[risedronate]],
[[risperidone]],
[[ritonavir]],
[[rituximab]],
[[rivastigmine]],
[[rizatriptan]],
[[Riluzole]],
[[roflumilast]],
[[Sacrosidase]],
[[salsalate]],
[[saquinavir mesylate]],
[[Saxagliptin hydrochloride and Metformin hydrochloride]]
[[sargramostim]],
[[Secukinumab]],
[[selegiline]],
[[sevelamer]],
[[sildenafil]],
[[Siltuximab]],
[[simethicone]],
[[simvastatin]],
[[sirolimus]],
[[sitagliptin]],
[[sodium oxybate]],
[[sodium picosulfate]],
[[sodium polystyrene sulfonate]],
[[solanine]],
[[solifenacin]],
[[sorafenib]],
[[sotalol]],
[[sparfloxacin]],
[[spironolactone]],
[[stavudine]],
[[streptozocin]],
[[sulfadiazine]],
[[sulfasalazine]],
[[sulfisoxazole]],
[[sulfisoxazole]],
[[sulindac]],
[[sumatriptan]],
[[sunitinib]],
[[tacrine]],
[[Tacrolimus]],
[[tamsulosin]],
[[tedizolid]],
[[tegaserod]],
[[telbivudine]],
[[telithromycin]],
[[telmisartan]],
[[temozolomide]],
[[teniposide]],
[[tenofovir]],
[[terbinafine]],
[[teriparatide]],
[[tetraferric tricitrate decahydrate]],
[[Thallous Chloride Tl 201]],
[[theophylline]],
[[thiabendazole]],
[[thioguanine]],
[[thioridazine]],
[[thiothixene]],
[[thyroxine]],
[[ticlopidine]],
[[Tigecycline]],
[[tiludronate]],
[[tipranavir]],
[[tocopherol]],
[[tolcapone]],
[[Tolmetin]],
[[topiramate]],
[[topotecan]],
[[Trametinib dimethyl sulfoxide]],
[[trandolapril]],
[[tranylcypromine]],
[[trastuzumab]],
[[trazodone]],
[[treprostinil]],
[[Tretinoin]],
[[triamterene]],
[[triazolam]],
[[trifluoperazine]],
[[trihexyphenidyl]],
[[trimeprazine]],
[[trimethadione]],
[[trimethobenzamide]],
[[trimetrexate glucuronate]],
[[trimipramine]],
[[triprolidine]],
[[trovafloxacin]],
[[valacyclovir]],
[[valganciclovir]],
[[valproic acid]],
[[valsartan]],
[[verapamil]],
[[Vandetanib]],
[[Vilazodone]],
[[vinblastine]],
[[voriconazole]],
[[vorinostat]],
[[zanamivir]],
[[Zafirlukast]],
[[zidovudine]],
[[ziprasidone]],
[[zoledronic acid]],
[[zolmitriptan]],
[[Zoledronate]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Otitis media|Otitis media in children]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Endocrine'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Addison's disease]],
[[carcinoid syndrome]],
[[diabetes insipidus]],
[[diabetic neuropathy]],
[[glucagonoma]],
[[Graves disease]],
[[hyperthyroidism]],
[[hypoaldosteronism]],
[[multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1]]
[[neuroendocrine tumors]],
[[somatostatinoma]],
[[subacute thyroiditis]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Environmental'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[List of poisonous plants|Abrus precatorious]], [[agastache rugosa]], [[alchornea castaneifolia]], [[Amanita phalloides|amanita phalloides poisoning]], [[amnesic shellfish poisoning]], [[Azalea|azalea poisoning]], [[Bee sting|bee stings]], [[datura stramonium|datura stramonium poisoning]], [[endosulfan|endosulfan toxication]], [[food poisoning]], [[Herbal extract|herbal extract overdose]], [[Grayanotoxin|honey intoxication]], [[Insect bites and stings|insect bite allergy]], [[isomalt|isomalt toxicity]], [[lycorine]], [[marine toxins]], [[mushroom poisoning]], [[narcissus pseudonarcissus]], [[oleander poisoning]], [[pesticide poisoning]], [[phytohaemagglutinin|phytohaemagglutinin poisoning]], [[phytolacca americana#toxicity|phytolacca americana toxicity]], [[ricin|ricinus communis poisoning]], [[snakebites]], [[solanine|solanine poisoning]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Abdominal abscess]],
[[abdominal cancer]],
[[achlorhydria]],
[[acute appendicitis]],
[[acute gastritis]],
[[bile acid sequestrant]],
[[biliary atresia]],
[[biliary tract cancer]],
[[blind loop syndrome]],
[[caecitis]],
[[carcinoid syndrome]],
[[celiac disease]],
[[cholestatic jaundice]],
[[colitis]],
[[Megacolon other imaging findings|colonic inertia]],
[[colonic malakoplakia]],
[[colonic villous adenomata]],
[[colorectal cancer]],
[[colorectal polyps]],
[[Crohn's disease]],
[[diverticulitis]],
[[enteritis]],
[[vaginal prolapse|enterocele]],
[[enterocolitis]],
[[food poisoning]],
[[fructose malabsorption]],
[[gastric dumping syndrome]],
[[gastrinoma]],
[[gastritis]],
[[neuroendocrine tumor|gastro-enteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumor]],
[[gastroenteritis]],
[[amyloidosis|gastrointestinal amyloidosis]],
[[glucose-galactose malabsorption]],
[[gluten sensitivity]],
[[Habba Syndrome|Habba syndrome]]
[[ileitis]],
[[inflammatory bowel disease]],
[[Primary lymphedema|intestinal lymphangiectasis]],
[[intestinal pseudoobstruction]],
[[intususception]],
[[irritable bowel syndrome]],
[[ischemic colitis]],
[[lactose intolerance]],
[[listeriosis]],
[[malabsorption syndrome]],
[[malassimilation]],
[[Meckel diverticulitis]],
[[polyposis]],
[[proctitis]],
[[protein losing enteropathy]],
[[tropical sprue]],
[[ulcerative colitis]],
[[Whipple's disease]],
[[Zollinger-Ellison syndrome]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[3-hydroxyacyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase deficiency]],
[[3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficiency]],
[[abetalipoproteinaemia]],
[[Arakawa's syndrome II]],
[[aromatic amino acid decarboxylase deficiency]],
[[aspartylglycosaminuria]],
[[Baber's syndrome]],
[[Brown-symmers disease]],
[[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]],
[[congenital disorder of glycosylation type 1B]],
[[Intrinsic factor|congenital intrinsic factor deficiency]],
[[congenital short bowel syndrome]],
[[congenital toxoplasmosis]],
[[Cornelia de Lange syndrome 2]],
[[Cronkhite-Canada disease]],
[[dibasic aminoaciduria 2]],
[[Fabry's disease]],
[[familial amyloid polyneuropathy]],
[[galactosemia]],
[[Gardner's syndrome]],
[[Gilbert's syndrome]],
[[glutathione synthetase deficiency]],
[[Hartnup disease]],
[[hereditary angioedema]],
[[HNPCC]],
[[hyper IgM syndrome]],
[[hyperlipoproteinemia type I]],
[[inborn amino acid metabolism disorder]],
[[juvenile polyposis syndrome]],
[[lipoid congenital adrenal hyperplasia]],
[[malonic aciduria]],
[[malonyl-CoA decarboxylase deficiency]],
[[mucopolysaccharidosis]],
[[neuroblastoma]],
[[neurofibromatosis]],
[[Sanfilippo syndrome]],
[[Slone's disease]],
[[sphingolipidosis]],
[[sucrase-isomaltase deficiency]],
[[Turcot syndrome]],
[[very long-chain acyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase deficiency]],
[[Von Gierke disease]],
[[Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome]],
[[X-linked agammaglobulinaemia]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Hematologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Amyloidosis]],
[[hereditary angioedema|C1 esterase inhibitor]],
[[chronic myeloproliferative disorders]],
[[hyper IgM syndrome]],
[[idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome]],
[[megaloblastic anemia]],
[[myleofibrosis]],
[[neutropenia]],
[[porphyria]]
[[Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome]],
[[X-linked agammaglobulinaemia]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Adjustable gastric band]],
[[colonoscopy]],
[[dumping syndrome]],
[[graft versus host disease]],
[[percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy]],
[[Abdominal surgery|postileal resection]],
[[vagotomy|postvagotomy]],
[[Proctitis|radiation proctitis]],
[[Rectal prolapse surgery|rectal surgery]],
[[radiation sickness]],
[[short bowel syndrome]],
[[vaccination]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Adenophorea]],
[[adenoviridae]],
[[aeromonas hydrophila]],
[[AIDS]],
[[amebiasis]],
[[ancylostoma duodenale]],
[[anguillulosis]],
[[anthrax]],
[[ascariasis]],
[[astrovirus]],
[[bacillary dysentery]],
[[bacillus cereus]],
[[bacterial toxin]],
[[balantidiasis]],
[[beef tapeworm]],
[[blastocystis hominis]],
[[borrelia anserina]],
[[botulism]],
[[campylobacter jejuni]],
[[candida]],
[[capillaria]],
[[cestoda]],
[[ciguatera poisoning]],
[[clostridium difficile]],
[[clostridium perfringens]],
[[clostridium sordellii]],
[[clostridium welchii]],
[[coccidia]],
[[cryptosporidiosis]],
[[cyclosporiasis]],
[[cysticercosis]],
[[cytomegalovirus]],
[[dientamoeba fragilis]],
[[diphyllobothrium infection]],
[[dipylidium caninum infection]],
[[Ebola]],
[[echinococcosis]],
[[ehrlichiosis]],
[[entamoeba histolytica]],
[[escherichia coli]],
[[fasciolopsiasis]],
[[filariasis]],
[[flavivirus]],
[[fusarium venenatum]],
[[giardia lamblia]],
[[hantavirus pulmonary syndrome]],
[[helminthiasis]],
[[hepatitis A]],
[[hepatitis B]],
[[hepatitis C]],
[[hepatitis D]],
[[hepatitis E]],
[[hepatitis X]],
[[hookworm infection]],
[[isosporiasis]],
[[katayama fever]],
[[lassa fever]],
[[legionella pneumophila]],
[[legionnaires' disease]],
[[leptospirosis]],
[[lymphogranuloma venereum]],
[[malaria]],
[[marburg virus]],
[[measles]],
[[metagonimiasis]],
[[mycobacterium avium complex]],
[[norwalk gastroenteritis]],
[[opisthorchis infection]],
[[paragonimus infection]],
[[pelvic abscess]],
[[pseudomembranous colitis]],
[[psittacosis]],
[[Q fever]],
[[rhabditida]],
[[rotavirus]],
[[roundworm]],
[[salmonellosis]],
[[sarcocystis]],
[[schistosomiasis]],
[[secernentea]],
[[shigellosis]],
[[small bowel bacterial overgrowth syndrome]],
[[staphylococcal food poisoning]],
[[staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome]],
[[streptobacillus]],
[[streptococcal infections]],
[[strongyloides]],
[[tapeworms]],
[[trematoda]],
[[trichinella spiralis]],
[[trichinosis]],
[[trichuriasis]],
[[tularemia]],
[[typhoid fever]],
[[vancomycin]],
[[vibrio cholerae]],
[[Vibrio|vibrio mimicus]],
[[vibrio parahemolyticus]],
[[vibrio vulnificus]],
[[visceral leishmaniasis]],
[[Whipple disease]], [[whipworm infection]], [[yersinia enterocolitica]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Musculoskeletal / Ortho'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Neurologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Common migraine]], [[neuroblastoma]], [[Waterhouse-Friederichsen syndrome]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Nutritional / Metabolic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Folate deficiency]],
[[food allergies]],
[[food intolerances]],
[[iron supplements]],
[[kwashiorkor]],
[[lactose intolerance]],
[[milk allergy]],
[[pellagra]],
[[pernicious anemia]],
[[protein losing enteropathy]],
[[sucrose intolerance]],
[[vitamin C toxicity]],
[[zinc deficiency]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Childbirth]], [[endometriosis]], [[neonatal sepsis]], [[ovarian cancer]], [[ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Oncologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Adrenal tumor]],
[[carcinoid syndrome]],
[[colorectal cancer]],
[[Ewing's sarcoma]],
[[Gardner's syndrome]],
[[gastric cancer]],
[[HNPCC]],
[[juvenile polyposis syndrome]],
[[Kaposi's sarcoma]],
[[multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1]],
[[neuroendocrine tumors]],
[[pancreatic adenoma]],
[[mesothelioma|peritoneal mesothelioma]],
[[neuroendocrine tumors]],
[[ovarian cancer]],
[[small bowel lymphoma]],
[[somatostatinoma]],
[[thymus cancer]],
[[Vipoma]],
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Opthalmologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Overdose / Toxicity'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Carbon monoxide toxicity]],
[[carnitine overuse]],
[[colchicine toxicity]],
[[Digoxin|digoxin toxicity]],
[[ergotism]],
[[heavy metal ingestion]],
[[mazindol]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Psychiatric'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Anxiety-tension syndrome]], [[chronic fatigue syndrome]], [[dissociative disorder]], [[panic attack]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Pulmonary'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Anthrax]], [[cystic fibrosis]], [[systemic sclerosis|diffuse systemic sclerosis]], [[legionellosis]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Renal / Electrolyte'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Acute kidney failure]], [[chronic renal failure]], [[hyperchloremia]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheum / Immune / Allergy'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Acquired angioedema]],
[[Amyloidosis]],
[[anaphylaxis]],
[[autoimmune adrenalitis]],
[[autoimmune enteropathy]],
[[autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome]],
[[autonomic neuropathy]],
[[hereditary angioedema|C1 esterase inhibitor]],
[[chronic granulomatous disease]],
[[complement 5 deficiency]],
[[hereditary angioedema]],
[[hyper IgM syndrome]],
[[Kawasaki disease]],
[[Omenn syndrome]],
[[Reiter’s syndrome]],
[[Satoyoshi syndrome]],
[[severe combined immunodeficiency]],
[[Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome]],
[[X-linked agammaglobulinaemia]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Urologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Proctitis]], [[Reiter’s syndrome]]
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Alcohol intoxication]],
[[alcohol withdrawal]],
[[anopsology]]
|-
|}
===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
{{Columns-list|5|
*[[2C-B]]
*[[3-hydroxyacyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase deficiency]]
*[[3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficiency]]
*[[5-HT3 antagonist]]
*[[tryptamine|5-methoxy-diisopropyltryptamine]]
*[[Abacavir]]
*[[Abdominal abscess]]
*[[Abdominal cancer]]
*[[Abetalipoproteinemia]]
*[[List of poisonous plants|Abrus precatorious]]
*[[Acamprosate calcium]]
*[[Acarbose]]
*[[Acebutolol]]
*[[Acetylcysteine]]
*[[Achlorhydria]]
*[[Achylia]]]
*[[Acitretin]]
*[[Aconitine]]
*[[Acquired angioedema]]
*[[Acrodermatitis enteropathica]]
*[[Acrodynia]]
*[[Acute appendicitis]]
*[[Acute gastritis]]
*[[Acute kidney failure]]
*[[Acute pancreatitis]]
*[[zinc|Acute zinc toxicity]]
*[[Acyclovir]]
*[[Addison's disease]]
*[[Adefovir]]
*[[Adenophorea]]
*[[Adenoviridae]]
*[[Adjustable gastric band]]
*[[Adrenal tumor]]
*[[Aeromonas hydrophila]]
*[[Agastache rugosa]]
*[[AIDS]]
*[[Alagille syndrome]]
*[[Alatrofloxacin]]
*[[Albendazole]]
*[[Alchornea castaneifolia]]
*[[Alcohol intoxication]]
*[[Alcohol withdrawal]]
*[[Aldesleukin]]
*[[Alemtuzumab]]
*[[Alendronate]]
*[[Aliskiren]]
*[[Allopurinol]]
*[[Alosetron]]
*[[Alpha-amanitin]]
*[[Alpha-glucosidase inhibitor]]
*[[Alprazolam]]
*[[Altretamine]]
*[[Amanita phalloides|Amanita phalloides poisoning]]
*[[Ambenonium]]
*[[Amebiasis]]
*[[Amifostine]]
*[[Amikacin]]
*[[Amiloride]]
*[[Aminocaproic acid]]
*[[Aminophylline]]
*[[Amitriptyline]]
*[[Amlexanox]]
*[[Amlodipine]]
*[[Ammonium lauryl sulfate]]
*[[Amnesic shellfish poisoning]]
*[[Amoxicillin]]
*[[Amphetamine]]
*[[Amphotericin B]]
*[[Ampicillin]]
*[[Amprenavir]]
*[[Amyloidosis]]
*[[Anadenanthera peregrina]]
*[[Anagrelide]]
*[[Anakinra]]
*[[Anaphylaxis]]
*[[Anastrozole]]
*[[Ancylostoma duodenale]]
*[[Angioedema]]
*[[Anguillulosis]]
*[[Anidulafungin]]
*[[Anisindione]]
*[[Anopsology]]
*[[Antacids]]
*[[Anthraquinone]]
*[[Anthrax]]
*[[Antidepressants]]
*[[Antineoplastic agents]]
*[[Anxiety-tension syndrome]]
*[[Apolipoprotein B deficiency]]
*[[Apomorphine]]
*[[Appendicitis]]
*[[Applesauce]]
*[[Aprepitant]]
*[[Arakawa's syndrome II]]
*[[Aromatic amino acid decarboxylase deficiency]]
*[[Arsenic poisoning]]
*[[Ascariasis]]
*[[Aspartylglycosaminuria]]
*[[Astrovirus]]
*[[Atazanavir]]
*[[Atenolol]]
*[[Athabaskan severe combined immunodeficiency]]
*[[Atorvastatin]]
*[[Atovaquone]]
*[[Auranofin]]
*[[Autoimmune adrenalitis]]
*[[Autoimmune enteropathy]]
*[[Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome]]
*[[Autonomic neuropathy]]
*[[Ayahuasca]]
*[[Azithromycin]]
*[[Aztreonam]]
*[[Baber's syndrome]]
*[[Bacillary dysentery]]
*[[Bacillus cereus]]
*[[Bacitracin]]
*[[Baclofen]]
*[[Bacterial toxin]]
*[[Balantidiasis]]
*[[Barium nitrate]]
*[[Barium sulfate]]
*[[Beef tapeworm]]
*[[Benazepril]]
*[[Bepridil]]
*[[Bethanechol chloride]]
*[[Bevacizumab]]
*[[Bezafibrate]]
*[[Bicalutamide]]
*[[Biguanide]]
*[[Bile acid sequestrant]]
*[[Biliary atresia]]
*[[Biliary tract cancer]]
*[[Stomach cancer surgery|Billroth II procedure]]
*[[Bisacodyl]]
*[[Bisoprolol]]
*[[Blastocystis hominis]]
*[[Blind loop syndrome]]
*[[Borrelia anserina]]
*[[Bortezomib]]
*[[Botulism]]
*[[Brainerd diarrhea]]
*[[Bromelain]]
*[[Brompheniramine]]
*[[Brown-symmers disease]]
*[[Bumetanide]]
*[[Buspirone]]
*[[Busulfan]]
*[[Hereditary angioedema|C1 esterase inhibitor]]
*[[Caecitis]]
*[[Calcitonin]]
*[[Campylobacter jejuni]]
*[[Candesartan]]
*[[Candida]]
*[[Capecitabine]]
*[[Capillaria]]
*[[Capsaicin]]
*[[Carbamazepine]]
*[[Carbon monoxide toxicity]]
*[[Carboplatin]]
*[[Carcinoid syndrome]]
*[[Cardiac glycosides]]
*[[Carmustine]]
*[[Carnitine overuse]]
*[[Carteolol]]
*[[Carvedilol]]
*[[Castor oil]]
*[[Cefaclor]]
*[[Cefadroxil]]
*[[Cefamandole nafate]]
*[[Cefazolin]]
*[[Cefdinir]]
*[[Cefepime]]
*[[Cefixime]]
*[[Cefoperazone]]
*[[Cefotaxime]]
*[[Cefotetan disodium]]
*[[Cefoxitin]]
*[[Cefpodoxime]]
*[[Cefprozil]]
*[[Ceftaroline fosamil]]
*[[Ceftazidime]]
*[[Ceftibuten]]
*[[Ceftizoxime]]
*[[Ceftriaxone]]
*[[Cefuroxime]]
*[[Celiac disease]]
*[[Cephalexin]]
*[[Cephalosporins]]
*[[Cephradine]]
*[[Cerivastatin]]
*[[Cestoda]]
*[[Cetuximab]]
*[[Cevimeline]]
*[[Chenodeoxycholic acid]]
*[[Childbirth]]
*[[Chlamydia]]
*[[Chloral hydrate]]
*[[Chlorambucil]]
*[[Chlordane]]
*[[Chlordiazepoxide]]
*[[Chlorodyne]]
*[[Chloroquine]]
*[[Chlorothiazide ]]
*[[Chlorpheniramine ]]
*[[Chlorpropamide]]
*[[Chlorthalidone ]]
*[[Cholecystitis]]
*[[Cholestatic jaundice]]
*[[Cholesteryl ester storage disease]]
*[[Cholestyramine ]]
*[[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]
*[[Chronic granulomatous disease]]
*[[Chronic myeloproliferative disorders]]
*[[Chronic pancreatitis]]
*[[Chronic renal failure]]
*[[Chylomicron retention disease]]
*[[Ciclosporin]]
*[[Cidofovir]]
*[[Ciguatera poisoning]]
*[[Cilostazol]]
*[[Cinacalcet]]
*[[Cinchonism]]
*[[Ciprofloxacin]]
*[[Cisapride]]
*[[Citalopram]]
*[[Cladribine]]
*[[Clamoxyquine]]
*[[Clarithromycin]]
*[[Clavulanic acid]]
*[[Clindamycin]]
*[[Clofarabine]]
*[[Clofibrate]]
*[[Clomipramine ]]
*[[Clonazepam]]
*[[Clopidogrel]]
*[[Clorazepate]]
*[[Clostridium difficile]]
*[[Clostridium perfringens]]
*[[Clostridium sordellii]]
*[[Clostridium welchii]]
*[[Coccidia]]
*[[Colchicine]]
*[[Colestyramine]]
*[[Colistimethate]]
*[[Colitis]]
*[[Collagenous colitis]]
*[[Megacolon|Colonic inertia]]
*[[Colonic malakoplakia]]
*[[Colonic villous adenomata]]
*[[Colonoscopy]]
*[[Colorectal cancer]]
*[[Colorectal polyps]]
*[[Common migraine]]
*[[Common variable immunodeficiency]]
*[[Complement 5 deficiency]]
*[[Congenital adrenal hyperplasia]]
*[[Congenital chloride diarrhea]]
*[[Congenital disorder of glycosylation type 1B]]
*[[intrinsic factor|Congenital intrinsic factor deficiency]]
*[[Congenital short bowel syndrome]]
*[[Congenital toxoplasmosis]]
*[[Cornelia de Lange syndrome 2]]
*[[Crohn's disease]]
*[[Cronkhite-Canada disease]]
*[[Cryptosporidiosis]]
*[[Cyclophosphamide]]
*[[Cyclosporiasis]]
*[[Cyproheptadine]]
*[[Cystic fibrosis]]
*[[Cysticercosis]]
*[[Cytarabine]]
*[[Cytomegalovirus]]
*[[Dactinomycin]]
*[[Dalfopristin]]
*[[Dantrolene]]
*[[Daptomycin]]
*[[Darbepoetin alfa]]
*[[Darifenacin]]
*[[Darunavir]]
*[[Dasatinib]]
*[[datura stramonium|Datura stramonium poisoning]]
*[[Daunorubicin]]
*[[Deferasirox]]
*[[Delavirdine]]
*[[Demeclocycline]]
*[[Deracoxib]]
*[[Desoxyn]]
*[[Dextroamphetamine]]
*[[Dextromethorphan]]
*[[Diabetes insipidus]]
*[[Diabetic neuropathy]]
*[[Diacerein]]
*[[Diazepam]]
*[[Diazinon]]
*[[Dibasic aminoaciduria 2]]
*[[Diclofenac]]
*[[Dicloxacillin]]
*[[Didanosine]]
*[[Dientamoeba fragilis]]
*[[systemic sclerosis|Diffuse systemic sclerosis]]
*[[Diflunisal]]
*[[Digitoxin]]
*[[Digoxin]]
*[[Diltiazem]]
*[[Diphyllobothrium infection]]
*[[Dipylidium caninum infection]]
*[[Dipyridamole]]
*[[Dirithromycin]]
*[[Dissociative disorder]]
*[[Distigmine]]
*[[Diverticulitis]]
*[[Docetaxel]]
*[[Dofetilide]]
*[[Dolasetron]]
*[[Donepezil]]
*[[Doripenem]]
*[[Doxorubicin]]
*[[Doxycycline]]
*[[Dracunculiasis]]
*[[DTPA]]
*[[Duloxetine]]
*[[Dumping syndrome]]
*[[Ebola]]
*[[Echinococcosis]]
*[[Echovirus]]
*[[Eculizumab]]
*[[Efavirenz ]]
*[[Eflornithine]]
*[[Ehrlichiosis]]
*[[Emtricitabine]]
*[[Enalapril]]
*[[End stage liver failure]]
*[[Endometriosis]]
*[[Endosulfan]]
*[[Enoxacin]]
*[[Entacapone]]
*[[Entamoeba histolytica]]
*[[Enteritis]]
*[[Enterobacter]]
*[[Vaginal prolapse|Enterocele]]
*[[Enterocolitis]]
*[[Escherichia coli|Enteroinvasive Escherichia coli (EIEC)]]
*[[Escherichia coli|Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) ]]
*[[Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli|Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC)]]
*[[Epirubicin hydrochloride]]
*[[Eplerenone]]
*[[Epoetin alfa]]
*[[Ergotamine]]
*[[Ergotism]]
*[[Erlotinib]]
*[[Erythromycin]]
*[[Escherichia coli O157:H7]]
*[[Esomeprazole]]
*[[Estazolam]]
*[[Estradiol]]
*[[Ethacrynic acid]]
*[[Ethanol]]
*[[Ethosuximide]]
*[[Etidronate]]
*[[Etodolac]]
*[[Etoposide]]
*[[Everolimus]]
* Excess [[coffee]], [[tea]]
*[[Exemestane]]
*[[Exenatide]]
*[[Ezetimibe]]
*[[Fabry's disease]]
*[[Famciclovir]]
*[[Familial amyloid polyneuropathy]]
*[[Famotidine]]
*[[Fasciolopsiasis]]
*[[Favism]]
*[[Fecal impaction]]
*[[Felbamate]]
*[[Fexofenadine]]
*[[Filariasis]]
*[[Flavivirus]]
*[[Floxuridine]]
*[[Fluconazole]]
*[[Flucytosine]]
*[[Fludarabine]]
*[[Fluke|Fluke infections]]
*[[Fluoride]]
*[[Fluorouracil]]
*[[Fluoxetine]]
*[[Flurazepam]]
*[[Flurbiprofen]]
*[[Flutamide]]
*[[Fluticasone]]
*[[Fluvastatin]]
*[[Fluvoxamine]]
*[[Folate deficiency]]
*[[Food allergies]]
*[[Food intolerances]]
*[[Food poisoning]]
*[[Fosamprenavir]]
*[[Foscarnet]]
*[[Fosinopril]]
*[[Frovatriptan]]
*[[Fructose malabsorption]]
*[[Fulvestrant]]
*[[Fusarium venenatum]]
*[[Gabapentin]]
*[[Galactosemia]]
*[[Galantamine]]
*[[Ganciclovir]]
*[[Gardner's syndrome]]
*[[Gastric cancer]]
*[[Gastric dumping syndrome]]
*[[Gastrinoma]]
*[[Gastritis]]
*[[neuroendocrine tumor|Gastro-enteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumor]]
* [[fistula|Gastrocolic fistula]]
*[[Gastroenteritis]]
*[[amyloidosis|Gastrointestinal amyloidosis]]
*[[Gatifloxacin]]
*[[Gefitinib]]
*[[Gemcitabine]]
*[[Gemeprost]]
*[[Gemfibrozil]]
*[[Gentamicin]]
*[[Giardia lamblia]]
*[[Gilbert's syndrome]]
*[[Glatiramer]]
*[[Glipizide]]
*[[Glucagonoma]]
*[[Glucosamine]]
*[[Glucose-galactose malabsorption]]
*[[Glutathione synthetase deficiency]]
*[[Gluten sensitivity]]
*[[Glycopyrrolate]]
*[[Graft versus host disease]]
*[[Granisetron]]
*[[Graves' disease]]
*[[Griseofulvin]]
*[[Guanethidine]]
*[[Guanfacine]]
*[[Habba Syndrome|Habba syndrome]]
*[[Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome]]
*[[Hartnup disease]]
*[[Heavy metal ingestion]]
*[[Helminthiasis]]
*[[Hemolytic uremic syndrome]]
*[[Hepatitis A]]
*[[Hepatitis B]]
*[[Hepatitis C]]
*[[Hepatitis D]]
*[[Hepatitis E]]
*[[Hepatitis X]]
*[[Herbal extract|Herbal extract overdose]]
*[[Hereditary angioedema]]
*[[Heroin dependence]]
*[[Heroin withdrawal]]
*[[HNPCC]]
*[[Grayanotoxin|Honey intoxication]]
*[[Hookworm infection]]
*[[Hydralazine]]
*[[Hydrochlorothiazide]]
*[[Hydroxychloroquine]]
*[[Hydroxyurea]]
*[[Hymenolepis infection]]
*[[Hyoscyamine]]
*[[Hyper IgM syndrome]]
*[[Hyperchloremia]]
*[[Hyperlipoproteinemia type I]]
*[[Hyperthyroidism]]
*[[Hypoaldosteronism]]
*[[Ibandronate]]
*[[Ibuprofen]]
*[[Idarubicin]]
*[[Idelalisib]]
*[[Idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome]]
*[[Ileitis]]
*[[Imatinib]]
*[[Imipenem]]
*[[Inborn amino acid metabolism disorder]]
*[[Indomethacin]]
*[[Inflammatory bowel disease]]
*[[Infliximab]]
*[[Influenza virus]]
*[[Insect bites and stings|Insect bite allergy]]
*[[Insulin lispro]]
*[[Interferon alpha]]
*[[Interferon Beta-1b]]
*[[primary lymphedema|Intestinal lymphangiectasis]]
*[[Intestinal pseudoobstruction]]
*[[Intususception]]
*[[IPEX (syndrome)]]
*[[Irinotecan hydrochloride]]
*[[Iron supplements]]
*[[Irritable bowel syndrome]]
*[[Ischemic colitis]]
*[[Isocarboxazid]]
*[[Isomalt|Isomalt toxicity]]
*[[Isosporiasis]]
*[[Isradipine]]
*[[Itraconazole]]
*[[Ivacaftor]]
*[[Ixabepilone]]
*[[Juvenile polyposis syndrome]]
*[[Kanamycin]]
*[[Kaposi's sarcoma]]
*[[Katayama fever]]
*[[Kawasaki disease]]
*[[Ketoconazole]]
*[[Ketorolac]]
*[[Klebsiella]]
*[[Kwashiorkor]]
*[[Laburnum]]
*[[Lactose intolerance]]
*[[Lamivudine]]
*[[Lamotrigine]]
*[[Lanreotide]]
*[[Lansoprazole]]
*[[Lanthanum]]
*[[Lapatinib ditosylate]]
*[[Lassa fever]]
*[[Laxative abuse]]
*[[Lead poisoning]]
*[[Leflunomide]]
*[[Legionella pneumophila]]
*[[Legionnaires' disease]]
*[[Leptospirosis]]
*[[Letrozole]]
*[[Leuprolide]]
*[[Levalbuterol]]
*[[Levetiracetam]]
*[[Levocarnitine]]
*[[Levodopa]]
*[[Levofloxacin]]
*[[Levothyroxine]]
*[[Lincomycin]]
*[[Linezolid]]
*[[Liothyronine sodium]]
*[[Lipoid congenital adrenal hyperplasia]]
*[[Lisinopril]]
*[[Listeriosis]]
*[[Lithium]]
*[[Lomefloxacin]]
*[[Lopinavir]]
*[[Loracarbef]]
*[[Loratadine]]
*[[Lorazepam]]
*[[Loxapine]]
*[[Lycorine]]
*[[Lymphangiectasis]]
*[[Lymphocytic colitis]]
*[[Lymphogranuloma venereum]]
*[[Macrolides]]
*[[Magnesium hydroxide]]
*[[Magnesium|Magnesium salts]]
*[[Malabsorption syndrome]]
*[[Malaria]]
*[[Malassimilation]]
*[[Malonic aciduria]]
*[[Malonyl-CoA decarboxylase deficiency]]
*[[Mannitol]]
*[[Marburg virus]]
*[[Marine toxins]]
*[[Mastocytosis]]
*[[Mazindol]]
*[[Measles]]
*[[Mebendazole]]
*[[Mechlorethamine]]
*[[Meckel diverticulitis]]
*[[Meclofenamate]]
*[[Medullary carcinoma of thyroid]]
*[[Mefenamic acid]]
*[[Mefloquine]]
*[[Megaloblastic anemia]]
*[[Megesterol]]
*[[Melarsoprol]]
*[[Meloxicam]]
*[[Ménétrier's disease]]
*[[Meprobamate]]
*[[Mercaptopurine]]
*[[Mercury poisoning]]
*[[Meropenem]]
*[[Mesalazine]]
*[[Mesna]]
*[[Mesoridazine]]
*[[Metabolic disorders]]
*[[Metagonimiasis]]
*[[Metal fume fever]]
*[[Metformin]]
*[[Methenamine]]
*[[Methotrexate]]
*[[Methoxychlor]]
*[[Methsuximide]]
*[[Methyclothiazide]]
*[[Methyldopa]]
*[[Methylergonovine]]
*[[Methyprylon]]
*[[Metoclopramide]]
*[[Metolachlor]]
*[[Metolazone]]
*[[Metoprolol]]
*[[Metronidazole]]
*[[Micafungin sodium]]
*[[Miconazole]]
*[[Microvillous inclusion disease]]
*[[Mifepristone]]
*[[Miglitol]]
*[[Milk allergy]]
*[[Mineral oil]]
*[[Minocycline]]
*[[Misoprostol]]
*[[Mitotane]]
*[[Mixed connective tissue disease]]
*[[Moclobemide]]
*[[Modafinil]]
*[[Moexipril]]
*[[Mastocytosis|Monoclonal mast cell activation syndrome]]
*[[Moricizine ]]
*[[Morphine withdrawal]]
*[[Moxifloxacin]]
*[[Mucopolysaccharidosis]]
*[[Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1]]
*[[Muscarine]]
*[[Mushroom poisoning]]
*[[Mycobacterium avium complex]]
*[[Mycophenolate]]
*[[Myleofibrosis]]
*[[Nabumetone]]
*[[Nafcillin]]
*[[Nalidixic acid]]
*[[Naltrexone ]]
*[[Naphthalene]]
*[[Narcissus pseudonarcissus]]
*[[Natalizumab]]
*[[Natamycin]]
*[[Nateglinide]]
*[[Necrotizing fasciitis]]
*[[Neisseria gonorrhea]]
*[[Nelfinavir]]
*[[Neomycin]]
*[[Neostigmine]]
*[[Netilmicin]]
*[[Neuroblastoma]]
*[[Neuroendocrine tumors]]
*[[Neurofibromatosis]]
*[[Neutropenia]]
*[[Nevirapine ]]
*[[Niclosamide]]
*[[Nintedanib]]
*[[Nizatidine]]
*[[Nontropical sprue]]
*[[Norfloxacin]]
*[[Norwalk gastroenteritis]]
*[[Nystatin]]
*[[Octreotide]]
*[[Ofloxacin]]
*[[Oleander|Oleander poisoning]]
*[[Olsalazine]]
*[[Omalizumab]]
*[[Omenn syndrome]]
*[[Omeprazole]]
*[[Ondansetron]]
*[[Opioid withdrawal]]
*[[Opisthorchis infection]]
*[[Organophosphates]]
*[[Orlistat]]
*[[Oseltamivir]]
*[[laxative|Osmotic laxative]]
*[[Otitis media|Otitis media in children]]
*[[Ovarian cancer]]
*[[Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome]]
*[[Oxaliplatin]]
*[[Oxazepam]]
*[[Oxcarbazepine]]
*[[Oxtriphylline]]
*[[Oxybutynin]]
*[[Oxyphenisatine]]
*[[Palbociclib]]
*[[Palivizumab]]
*[[Pancreatic adenoma]]
*[[Pancrelipase]]
*[[Panitumumab]]
*[[Pantoprazole]]
*[[Paragonimus infection]]
*[[Paraquat]]
*[[Parasympathomimetics]]
*[[Parathion]]
*[[Paroxetine]]
*[[Pearson syndrome]]
*[[Pegaspargase]]
*[[Peginterferon alfa-2a]]
*[[Peginterferon alfa-2b]]
*[[Pellagra]]
*[[Pelvic abscess]]
*[[Pemetrexed]]
*[[Pemoline]]
*[[Penbutolol]]
*[[Penicillin allergy]]
*[[Penicillium marneffei]]
*[[Pentamidine]]
*[[Pentostatin]]
*[[Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy]]
*[[Pergolide]]
*[[Perindopril]]
*[[Periodic hyperlysinemia]]
*[[Mesothelioma|Peritoneal mesothelioma]]
*[[Pernicious anemia]]
*[[Perphenazine]]
*[[Persin]]
*[[Pesticide poisoning]]
*[[Phenoxymethylpenicillin]]
*[[Phentermine]]
*[[Phentolamine]]
*[[Phycomycosis]]
*[[Phytohaemagglutinin|Phytohaemagglutinin poisoning]]
*[[phytolacca americana|Phytolacca americana toxicity]]
*[[Pilocarpine]]
*[[Pimecrolimus]]
*[[Pimozide]]
*[[Pirfenidone]]
*[[Piroxicam]]
*[[Plerixafor]]
*[[Plicamycin]]
*[[Poliovirus]]
*[[Polyposis]]
*[[Polythiazide]]
*[[Porphyria]]
*[[Portal vein thrombosis]]
*[[Posaconazole]]
*[[abdominal surgery|Postileal resection]]
*[[sympathectomy|Postsympathectomy]]
*[[Vagotomy|Postvagotomy]]
*[[Potassium citrate]]
*[[Pramipexole ]]
*[[Pramlintide]]
*[[Prazepam]]
*[[Praziquantel]]
*[[Prazosin]]
*[[Procainamide]]
*[[Procarbazine]]
*[[Proctitis]]
*[[Promethazine]]
*[[Propafenone]]
*[[Propranolol]]
*[[Prostaglandins]]
*[[Protein losing enteropathy]]
*[[Protriptyline ]]
*[[Pseudoephedrine]]
*[[Pseudomembranous colitis]]
*[[Psittacosis]]
*[[Pyrantel pamoate]]
*[[Pyridostigmine]]
*[[Q fever]]
*[[Quinapril]]
*[[Quinidine]]
*[[Quinolones]]
*[[Quinupristin]]
*[[Rabeprazole ]]
*[[proctitis|Radiation proctitis]]
*[[Radiation sickness]]
*[[Radium chloride]]
*[[Raltitrexed]]
*[[Ramipril]]
*[[Ranitidine]]
*[[Rasagiline]]
*[[Rectal cancer]]
*[[Rectal prolapse surgery|Rectal surgery]]
*[[Refsum disease]]
*[[Reiter’s syndrome]]
*[[Repaglinide]]
*[[Reserpine]]
*[[Retapamulin]]
*[[Rhabditida]]
*[[Ribavirin]]
*[[Ricinoleic acid]]
*[[Ricin|Ricinus communis poisoning]]
*[[Rifabutin]]
*[[Rifampin ]]
*[[Rilmenidine]]
*[[Riluzole]]
*[[Risedronate]]
*[[Risperidone]]
*[[Ritonavir]]
*[[Rituximab]]
*[[Rivastigmine]]
*[[Rizatriptan]]
*[[Roflumilast]]
*[[Rotavirus]]
*[[Roundworm]]
*[[Salmonellosis]]
*[[Salsalate]]
*[[Sanfilippo syndrome]]
*[[Saquinavir mesylate]]
*[[Sarcocystis]]
*[[Sargramostim]]
*[[Satoyoshi syndrome]]
*[[Schistosomiasis]]
*[[Scombroid food poisoning]]
*[[Secernentea]]
*[[Selegiline]]
*[[selenium|Selenium toxicity]]
*[[Serotonin syndrome]]
*[[Sevelamer]]
*[[Severe combined immunodeficiency]]
*[[Shigellosis]]
*[[Short bowel syndrome]]
*[[Shwachman-Diamond syndrome]]
*[[Sildenafil]]
*[[Siltuximab]]
*[[Simethicone]]
*[[Simvastatin]]
*[[Sirolimus]]
*[[Sitagliptin]]
*[[Slone's disease]]
*[[Small bowel bacterial overgrowth syndrome]]
*[[Small bowel lymphoma]]
*[[Sodium oxybate]]
*[[Sodium picosulfate]]
*[[Sodium polystyrene sulfonate ]]
*[[Sofosbuvir]]
*[[solanine|Solanine poisoning]]
*[[Solifenacin]]
*[[Somatostatinoma]]
*[[Sorafenib]]
*[[Sorbitol]]
*[[Sotalol]]
*[[Sparfloxacin]]
*[[Sphingolipidosis]]
*[[Spironolactone]]
*[[Stachybotrys chartarum]]
*[[Staphylococcal food poisoning]]
*[[Staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome]]
*[[Stavudine]]
*[[Streptobacillus]]
*[[Streptococcal infections]]
*[[Streptococcus suis]]
*[[Streptozocin]]
*[[Strongyloides]]
*[[Subacute thyroiditis]]
*[[Sucrase-isomaltase deficiency]]
*[[Sucrose intolerance]]
*[[Sulfadiazine]]
*[[Sulfasalazine]]
*[[Sulfisoxazole]]
*[[Sulindac]]
*[[Sulphonamides]]
*[[Sumatriptan]]
*[[Sunitinib]]
*[[Superior mesenteric artery syndrome]]
*[[Tacrine]]
*[[Tacrolimus]]
*[[Tamsulosin]]
*[[Tapeworms]]
*[[TASB (psychedelics)]]
*[[Tegafur]]
*[[Tegaserod]]
*[[Telbivudine]]
*[[Telithromycin]]
*[[Telmisartan]]
*[[Temozolomide]]
*[[Teniposide]]
*[[Tenofovir]]
*[[Terbinafine]]
*[[Teriparatide]]
*[[Tetracyclines]]
*[[Tetrodotoxin]]
*[[Thallium]]
*[[Theophylline]]
*[[Thiabendazole]]
*[[Thioguanine]]
*[[Thioridazine]]
*[[Thiothixene]]
*[[Thymus cancer]]
*[[Thyroid carcinoma]]
*[[Thyroxine]]
*[[Ticlopidine]]
*[[Tigecycline]]
*[[Tiludronate]]
*[[Tipranavir]]
*[[Tocopherol]]
*[[Tolcapone]]
*[[Topiramate]]
*[[Topotecan]]
*[[Toxocara]]
*[[Toxoplasmosis]]
*[[Trametinib dimethyl sulfoxide]]
*[[Tranexamic acid]]
*[[Tranylcypromine]]
*[[Trastuzumab]]
*[[Traveler's diarrhea]]
*[[Trazodone]]
*[[Trematoda]]
*[[Treprostinil]]
*[[Tretinoin]]
*[[Triamterene]]
*[[Triazolam]]
*[[Trichinella spiralis]]
*[[Trichinosis]]
*[[Trichuriasis]]
*[[Trifluoperazine]]
*[[Trihexyphenidyl]]
*[[Trimeprazine]]
*[[Trimethadione]]
*[[Trimethobenzamide]]
*[[Trimetrexate glucuronate]]
*[[Trimipramine]]
*[[Tropical sprue]]
*[[Trovafloxacin]]
*[[Tuberculosis]]
*[[Tularemia]]
*[[Turcot syndrome]]
*[[Typhoid fever]]
*[[Ulcerative colitis]]
*[[Urofollitropin]]
*[[Ursodeoxycholic acid]]
*[[Vaccination]]
*[[Valacyclovir]]
*[[Valganciclovir]]
*[[Valinemia]]
*[[Valproic acid]]
*[[Valsartan]]
*[[Vasculitis]]
*[[Vasculitis hypersensitivity]]
*[[Verapamil]]
*[[Vipoma|Verner-Morrison syndrome]]
*[[Very long-chain acyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase deficiency]]
*[[Vibrio cholerae]]
*[[Vibrio|Vibrio mimicus]]
*[[Vibrio parahemolyticus]]
*[[Vibrio vulnificus]]
*[[Vilazodone]]
*[[Villous adenoma]]
*[[Vinblastine]]
*[[Vinorelbine Tartrate|Vinorelbine tartrate]]
*[[Vipoma]]
*[[Visceral leishmaniasis]]
*[[Vitamin C toxicity]]
*[[Von Gierke disease]]
*[[Voriconazole]]
*[[Vorinostat]]
*[[Waterhouse-Friederichsen syndrome]]
*[[Weil syndrome]]
*[[West Nile fever]]
*[[Whipple's disease]]
*[[Whipworm Infection]]
*[[Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome]]
*[[X-linked agammaglobulinaemia]]
*[[Yersinia enterocolitica]]
*[[Zanamivir]]
*[[Zidovudine]]
*[[Zinc deficiency]]
*[[Ziprasidone ]]
*[[Zoledronic acid]]
*[[Zollinger-Ellison syndrome]]
*[[Zolmitriptan]]
*[[Zolpidem]]
}}
==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}
[[Category:Medicine]]
[[Category:Gastroenterology]]
[[Category:Up-To-Date]]

Latest revision as of 20:15, 29 July 2020

Acute Diarrhea Microchapters

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Chandrakala Yannam, MD [2] Sudarshana Datta, MD [3]

Overview

Common causes of acute diarrhea in both developing and developed nations are infections. Infectious agents responsible for majority of cases include Norovirus, Salmonella, Shigella, Clostridium perfringens, Staphylococcus aureus, Rotavirus, Shigella, Enterotoxigenic E.coli (ETEC), Campylobacter and Cryptosporidium parvum. Less commonly, acute diarrhea may be be caused by Norwalk viruses or may be associated with systemic infections including influenza, urinary tract infections, and HIV infection. Other common causes of acute diarrhea include food allergies and drug side effects. Less commonly, acute diarrhea can be a symptom of the initial stages of systemic conditions including Ischemic colitis, hyperthyroidism, tropical sprue and with disorders of digestion and the absorption.

Causes

Causes of acute diarrhea based on infectious agents are enlisted below. Common causes of diarrhea differ based on geographical location, food hygiene standards, sanitation, water supply, and the season. The causes include the following:[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]

Bacterial causes of diarrhea

Viral causes of diarrhea

Protozoa

Systemic infections

Disorders of digestive/absorptive processes

Medications

Ingestion of plants (eg, hyacinths, daffodils, Amanita species mushrooms)

Food allergies

  • Cow's milk protein allergy
  • Soy protein allergy

Organophosphate poisoning

Opium withdrawal

Life threatening causes

Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.


Common Causes

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular Portal vein thrombosis, superior mesenteric artery syndrome
Chemical / poisoning

Acrodynia, Amlodipine besylate and Atorvastatin calcium trihydrate, acute zinc toxicity, arsenic poisoning, Azacitidine , Cabozantinib carbamate insecticide poisoning, carbon monoxide poisoning, chlordane toxicity, chloroform toxicity, copper toxicity, diazinon poisoning, glutaraldehyde toxicity, heavy metal poisoning, lead poisoning, mercury poisoning, metal fume fever, naphthalene poisoning, organophosphate poisoning, paraquat toxicity, selenium toxicity, thallium toxicity

Dermatologic Acrodermatitis enteropathica, necrotizing fasciitis
Drug Side Effect

Ambenonium, 2C-B, 5-HT3 antagonist, 5-methoxy-diisopropyl tryptamine, abacavir, Acamprosate calcium, acarbose, acebutolol, Acetylcysteine, acyclovir, acitretin, aconitine, adefovir, afatinib, alatrofloxacin, albendazole, aldesleukin, Alemtuzumab, alendronate, aliskiren, allopurinol, alosetron, alpha-amanitin, alpha-glucosidase inhibitor, alprazolam, altretamine, ambenonium chloride, amifostine, amiloride, aminocaproic acid, aminophylline, amlexanox, amlodipine, Amlodipine besylate and Atorvastatin calcium trihydrate, ammonium lauryl sulfate, amoxicillin, amphetamine, amphotericin B, amprenavir, amitriptyline, anadenanthera peregrina, anagrelide, anakinra, anastrozole, Anidulafungin, anisindione, Apremilast, aprepitant, atazanavir, atenolol, atorvastatin, atovaquone, Atropine, auranofin, azithromycin, aztreonam, bacitracin, baclofen, barium nitrate, barium sulfate, Basiliximab, Benzphetamine, benazepril, bentiromide, bepridil, betaxolol, Bethanechol chloride, bevacizumab, bezafibrate, bicalutamide, biguanide, bisacodyl, bisoprolol, bortezomib, Bosutinib, bromocriptine, brompheniramine, bumetanide, buspirone, busulfan, candesartan, capecitabine, carbamazepine, carbidopa, carboplatin, carvedilol, cefaclor, cefadroxil, cefamandole nafate, cefazolin, cefazolin, cefdinir, Cefditoren, cefepime, Cefixime, cefoperazone, cefotaxime, cefotetan disodium, cefoxitin, cefpodoxime, Cefprozil, Ceftaroline fosamil, ceftazidime, Ceftibuten, ceftizoxime, ceftriaxone, cefuroxime, cephalexin, cephradine, Ceritinib, cerivastatin, cetuximab, cevimeline, Chenodiol, chloral hydrate, chlorambucil, chlordiazepoxide, chlorodyne, chlorothiazide, chlorpheniramine, Chlorpropamide, chlorthalidone, cholestyramine, ciclosporin, cidofovir, cilostazol,, cinacalcet, cisapride, citalopram, cladribine, clamoxyquine, clarithromycin, clavulanic acid, clindamycin, clofarabine, clofibrate, clomipramine, clonazepam, clopidogrel, clorazepate, Conjugated estrogens/bazedoxifene, colchicine, colistimethate, conjugated estrogens, Crizotinib, cyclophosphamide, cyproheptadine, cytarabine, dactinomycin, dalfopristin, dantrolene, daptomycin, darbepoetin alfa, darifenacin, darunavir, dasatinib, daunorubicin, deferasirox, delavirdine, demeclocycline, Denileukin diftitox deracoxib, desoxyn, Dexchlorpheniramine, dextroamphetamine, dextromethorphan, diacerein, diazepam, diclofenac, dicloxacillin, didanosine, diflunisal, digitoxin, digoxin, diltiazem, dipyridamole, dirithromycin, disopyramide, docetaxel, dofetilide, dolasetron, donepezil, doripenem, doxorubicin, doxycycline, DTPA, duloxetine, Ecallantide, eculizumab, efavirenz, Elvitegravir, emtricitabine, Emtricitabine, Rilpivirine Hydrochloride, And Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate enalapril, endosulfan, enoxacin, entacapone, Epirubicin hydrochloride, eplerenone, epoetin alfa, ergotamine, erlotinib, Eliglustat, erythromycin, esomeprazole, estazolam, estradiol, ethacrynic acid, ethosuximide, etidronate, etodolac, etoposide, exemestane, exenatide, ezetimibe, famciclovir, famotidine, felbamate, Ferric oxyhydroxide, fexofenadine, floxuridine, foscarnet sodium, fluconazole, flucytosine, fludarabine, fluoride, fluorouracil, fluoxetine, flurazepam, Flurbiprofen, flutamide, fluticasone, fluvastatin, fluvoxamine, fosamprenavir, foscarnet, fosinopril, frovatriptan, fulvestrant, gabapentin, galantamine, ganciclovir, gatifloxacin, gefitinib, gemcitabine, gemeprost, gemfibrozil, glatiramer, Glipizide, Glyburide and Metformin, glycopyrrolate, granisetron, griseofulvin, guanethidine, guanfacine, hydralazine, hydrochlorothiazide, hydroxychloroquine, Hydroxyprogesterone caproate hydroxyurea, hyoscyamine, ibandronate, Ibritumomab Tiuxetan ibuprofen, idarubicin, Idelalisib, Idursulfase, imatinib, Imiglucerase infliximab, interferon alfacon-1 , Interferon alfa-2b , interferon beta-1b, irinotecan hydrochloride, iron supplements, isocarboxazid, isradipine, itraconazole, Ivacaftor, Ivermectin, Ixabepilone, ketoconazole, Ketorolac tromethamine, Lactulose, lamivudine, lamotrigine, lanreotide, lansoprazole, lanthanum,Lapatinib, leflunomide, lenalidomide, letrozole, leuprolide, levalbuterol, levetiracetam, Lenvatinib, levocarnitine, levodopa, levofloxacin, Linaclotide, Lincomycin Hydrochloride, linezolid, liothyronine sodium, lisinopril, lithium, lomefloxacin, lopinavir, loracarbef, loratadine, lorazepam, loxapine, magnesium hydroxide, mebendazole, mechlorethamine, meclofenamate, Mercaptopurine, mefenamic acid, mefloquine, megestrol, Meloxicam, meprobamate, mercaptopurine, meropenem, mesalazine, mesna, mesoridazine, Metirosine, metformin, methamphetamine, methenamine, methotrexate, methoxychlor, methsuximide, methyclothiazide, methylergonovine, methyprylon, metoclopramide, metolachlor, metolazone, metoprolol, metronidazole, Micafungin sodium, miconazole, mifepristone, miglitol, Miglustat, miltefosine minocycline, misoprostol, mitotane, mitoxantrone, moclobemide, modafinil, moexipril, moricizine, moxifloxacin, mycophenolate, nabumetone, nafcillin, naltrexone, naphthalene, naproxen and esomeprazole magnesium, natalizumab, natamycin, nateglinide, nelfinavir, nevirapine, Niacin/simvastatin, niclosamide, Nilotinib, Nintedanib, nizatidine, norfloxacin, nystatin, ofloxacin, Olsalazine, omalizumab, omeprazole, ondansetron, oseltamivir, oxaliplatin, oxazepam, oxcarbazepine, oxtriphylline, oxybutynin, Palbociclib, palivizumab, pancrelipase, Panitumumab, pantoprazole, Paromomycin sulfate, Paroxetine, Pasireotide, pegaspargase, peginterferon alfa-2a, peginterferon alfa-2b, pemetrexed, pemoline, penbutolol, penicillin, pentamidine, pentostatin, pergolide, perindopril, perphenazine, Pertuzumab, phenazopyridine, Phenoxymethylpenicillin, phentermine, pilocarpine, pimecrolimus, pimozide, Pirfenidone, piroxicam, Plerixafor, Potassium iodide, plicamycin, polythiazide, posaconazole, Potassium chloride, Potassium citrate, pramipexole, pramlintide, prazepam, praziquantel, prazosin, procainamide, procarbazine, promethazine, propafenone, propranolol, permethrin, protriptyline, pseudoephedrine, Pyrantel pamoate, pyridostigmine, quinapril, quinidine, quinupristin, rabeprazole, Radium chloride, ramipril, Ramucirumab, ranitidine, rasagiline, Rasburicase, repaglinide, reserpine, retapamulin, ribavirin, rifabutin, rifampin, rilmenidine, riluzole, risedronate, risperidone, ritonavir, rituximab, rivastigmine, rizatriptan, Riluzole, roflumilast, Sacrosidase, salsalate, saquinavir mesylate, Saxagliptin hydrochloride and Metformin hydrochloride sargramostim, Secukinumab, selegiline, sevelamer, sildenafil, Siltuximab, simethicone, simvastatin, sirolimus, sitagliptin, sodium oxybate, sodium picosulfate, sodium polystyrene sulfonate, solanine, solifenacin, sorafenib, sotalol, sparfloxacin, spironolactone, stavudine, streptozocin, sulfadiazine, sulfasalazine, sulfisoxazole, sulfisoxazole, sulindac, sumatriptan, sunitinib, tacrine, Tacrolimus, tamsulosin, tedizolid, tegaserod, telbivudine, telithromycin, telmisartan, temozolomide, teniposide, tenofovir, terbinafine, teriparatide, tetraferric tricitrate decahydrate, Thallous Chloride Tl 201, theophylline, thiabendazole, thioguanine, thioridazine, thiothixene, thyroxine, ticlopidine, Tigecycline, tiludronate, tipranavir, tocopherol, tolcapone, Tolmetin, topiramate, topotecan, Trametinib dimethyl sulfoxide, trandolapril, tranylcypromine, trastuzumab, trazodone, treprostinil, Tretinoin, triamterene, triazolam, trifluoperazine, trihexyphenidyl, trimeprazine, trimethadione, trimethobenzamide, trimetrexate glucuronate, trimipramine, triprolidine, trovafloxacin, valacyclovir, valganciclovir, valproic acid, valsartan, verapamil, Vandetanib, Vilazodone, vinblastine, voriconazole, vorinostat, zanamivir, Zafirlukast, zidovudine, ziprasidone, zoledronic acid, zolmitriptan, Zoledronate

Ear Nose Throat Otitis media in children
Endocrine

Addison's disease, carcinoid syndrome, diabetes insipidus, diabetic neuropathy, glucagonoma, Graves disease, hyperthyroidism, hypoaldosteronism, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 neuroendocrine tumors, somatostatinoma, subacute thyroiditis

Environmental Abrus precatorious, agastache rugosa, alchornea castaneifolia, amanita phalloides poisoning, amnesic shellfish poisoning, azalea poisoning, bee stings, datura stramonium poisoning, endosulfan toxication, food poisoning, herbal extract overdose, honey intoxication, insect bite allergy, isomalt toxicity, lycorine, marine toxins, mushroom poisoning, narcissus pseudonarcissus, oleander poisoning, pesticide poisoning, phytohaemagglutinin poisoning, phytolacca americana toxicity, ricinus communis poisoning, snakebites, solanine poisoning
Gastroenterologic

Abdominal abscess, abdominal cancer, achlorhydria, acute appendicitis, acute gastritis, bile acid sequestrant, biliary atresia, biliary tract cancer, blind loop syndrome, caecitis, carcinoid syndrome, celiac disease, cholestatic jaundice, colitis, colonic inertia, colonic malakoplakia, colonic villous adenomata, colorectal cancer, colorectal polyps, Crohn's disease, diverticulitis, enteritis, enterocele, enterocolitis, food poisoning, fructose malabsorption, gastric dumping syndrome, gastrinoma, gastritis, gastro-enteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumor, gastroenteritis, gastrointestinal amyloidosis, glucose-galactose malabsorption, gluten sensitivity, Habba syndrome ileitis, inflammatory bowel disease, intestinal lymphangiectasis, intestinal pseudoobstruction, intususception, irritable bowel syndrome, ischemic colitis, lactose intolerance, listeriosis, malabsorption syndrome, malassimilation, Meckel diverticulitis, polyposis, proctitis, protein losing enteropathy, tropical sprue, ulcerative colitis, Whipple's disease, Zollinger-Ellison syndrome

Genetic

3-hydroxyacyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase deficiency, 3-methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase deficiency, abetalipoproteinaemia, Arakawa's syndrome II, aromatic amino acid decarboxylase deficiency, aspartylglycosaminuria, Baber's syndrome, Brown-symmers disease, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, congenital disorder of glycosylation type 1B, congenital intrinsic factor deficiency, congenital short bowel syndrome, congenital toxoplasmosis, Cornelia de Lange syndrome 2, Cronkhite-Canada disease, dibasic aminoaciduria 2, Fabry's disease, familial amyloid polyneuropathy, galactosemia, Gardner's syndrome, Gilbert's syndrome, glutathione synthetase deficiency, Hartnup disease, hereditary angioedema, HNPCC, hyper IgM syndrome, hyperlipoproteinemia type I, inborn amino acid metabolism disorder, juvenile polyposis syndrome, lipoid congenital adrenal hyperplasia, malonic aciduria, malonyl-CoA decarboxylase deficiency, mucopolysaccharidosis, neuroblastoma, neurofibromatosis, Sanfilippo syndrome, Slone's disease, sphingolipidosis, sucrase-isomaltase deficiency, Turcot syndrome, very long-chain acyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase deficiency, Von Gierke disease, Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, X-linked agammaglobulinaemia

Hematologic

Amyloidosis, C1 esterase inhibitor, chronic myeloproliferative disorders, hyper IgM syndrome, idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome, megaloblastic anemia, myleofibrosis, neutropenia, porphyria Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, X-linked agammaglobulinaemia

Iatrogenic

Adjustable gastric band, colonoscopy, dumping syndrome, graft versus host disease, percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy, postileal resection, postvagotomy, radiation proctitis, rectal surgery, radiation sickness, short bowel syndrome, vaccination

Infectious Disease

Adenophorea, adenoviridae, aeromonas hydrophila, AIDS, amebiasis, ancylostoma duodenale, anguillulosis, anthrax, ascariasis, astrovirus, bacillary dysentery, bacillus cereus, bacterial toxin, balantidiasis, beef tapeworm, blastocystis hominis, borrelia anserina, botulism, campylobacter jejuni, candida, capillaria, cestoda, ciguatera poisoning, clostridium difficile, clostridium perfringens, clostridium sordellii, clostridium welchii, coccidia, cryptosporidiosis, cyclosporiasis, cysticercosis, cytomegalovirus, dientamoeba fragilis, diphyllobothrium infection, dipylidium caninum infection, Ebola, echinococcosis, ehrlichiosis, entamoeba histolytica, escherichia coli, fasciolopsiasis, filariasis, flavivirus, fusarium venenatum, giardia lamblia, hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, helminthiasis, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, hepatitis D, hepatitis E, hepatitis X, hookworm infection, isosporiasis, katayama fever, lassa fever, legionella pneumophila, legionnaires' disease, leptospirosis, lymphogranuloma venereum, malaria, marburg virus, measles, metagonimiasis, mycobacterium avium complex, norwalk gastroenteritis, opisthorchis infection, paragonimus infection, pelvic abscess, pseudomembranous colitis, psittacosis, Q fever, rhabditida, rotavirus, roundworm, salmonellosis, sarcocystis, schistosomiasis, secernentea, shigellosis, small bowel bacterial overgrowth syndrome, staphylococcal food poisoning, staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome, streptobacillus, streptococcal infections, strongyloides, tapeworms, trematoda, trichinella spiralis, trichinosis, trichuriasis, tularemia, typhoid fever, vancomycin, vibrio cholerae, vibrio mimicus, vibrio parahemolyticus, vibrio vulnificus, visceral leishmaniasis, Whipple disease, whipworm infection, yersinia enterocolitica

Musculoskeletal / Ortho No underlying causes
Neurologic Common migraine, neuroblastoma, Waterhouse-Friederichsen syndrome
Nutritional / Metabolic

Folate deficiency, food allergies, food intolerances, iron supplements, kwashiorkor, lactose intolerance, milk allergy, pellagra, pernicious anemia, protein losing enteropathy, sucrose intolerance, vitamin C toxicity, zinc deficiency

Obstetric/Gynecologic Childbirth, endometriosis, neonatal sepsis, ovarian cancer, ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome
Oncologic

Adrenal tumor, carcinoid syndrome, colorectal cancer, Ewing's sarcoma, Gardner's syndrome, gastric cancer, HNPCC, juvenile polyposis syndrome, Kaposi's sarcoma, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1, neuroendocrine tumors, pancreatic adenoma, peritoneal mesothelioma, neuroendocrine tumors, ovarian cancer, small bowel lymphoma, somatostatinoma, thymus cancer, Vipoma,

Opthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose / Toxicity

Carbon monoxide toxicity, carnitine overuse, colchicine toxicity, digoxin toxicity, ergotism, heavy metal ingestion, mazindol

Psychiatric Anxiety-tension syndrome, chronic fatigue syndrome, dissociative disorder, panic attack
Pulmonary Anthrax, cystic fibrosis, diffuse systemic sclerosis, legionellosis
Renal / Electrolyte Acute kidney failure, chronic renal failure, hyperchloremia
Rheum / Immune / Allergy

Acquired angioedema, Amyloidosis, anaphylaxis, autoimmune adrenalitis, autoimmune enteropathy, autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome, autonomic neuropathy, C1 esterase inhibitor, chronic granulomatous disease, complement 5 deficiency, hereditary angioedema, hyper IgM syndrome, Kawasaki disease, Omenn syndrome, Reiter’s syndrome, Satoyoshi syndrome, severe combined immunodeficiency, Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, X-linked agammaglobulinaemia

Trauma No underlying causes
Urologic Proctitis, Reiter’s syndrome
Miscellaneous

Alcohol intoxication, alcohol withdrawal, anopsology

Causes in Alphabetical Order

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5

References

  1. ↑ Mokomane M, Kasvosve I, de Melo E, Pernica JM, Goldfarb DM (2018). "The global problem of childhood diarrhoeal diseases: emerging strategies in prevention and management". Ther Adv Infect Dis. 5 (1): 29–43. doi:10.1177/2049936117744429. PMC 5761924. PMID 29344358.
  2. ↑ de Bruyn G (2008). "Diarrhoea in adults (acute)". BMJ Clin Evid. 2008. PMC 2907942. PMID 19450323.
  3. ↑ Chiejina M, Samant H. PMID 29262044. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  4. ↑ Dalby-Payne JR, Elliott EJ (2009). "Gastroenteritis in children". BMJ Clin Evid. 2009. PMC 2907797. PMID 21726481.
  5. ↑ Kotloff KL, Nataro JP, Blackwelder WC, Nasrin D, Farag TH, Panchalingam S, Wu Y, Sow SO, Sur D, Breiman RF, Faruque AS, Zaidi AK, Saha D, Alonso PL, Tamboura B, Sanogo D, Onwuchekwa U, Manna B, Ramamurthy T, Kanungo S, Ochieng JB, Omore R, Oundo JO, Hossain A, Das SK, Ahmed S, Qureshi S, Quadri F, Adegbola RA, Antonio M, Hossain MJ, Akinsola A, Mandomando I, Nhampossa T, Acácio S, Biswas K, O'Reilly CE, Mintz ED, Berkeley LY, Muhsen K, Sommerfelt H, Robins-Browne RM, Levine MM (2013). "Burden and aetiology of diarrhoeal disease in infants and young children in developing countries (the Global Enteric Multicenter Study, GEMS): a prospective, case-control study". Lancet. 382 (9888): 209–22. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60844-2. PMID 23680352.
  6. ↑ Chhabra P, Payne DC, Szilagyi PG, Edwards KM, Staat MA, Shirley SH, Wikswo M, Nix WA, Lu X, Parashar UD, Vinjé J (2013). "Etiology of viral gastroenteritis in children <5 years of age in the United States, 2008-2009". J. Infect. Dis. 208 (5): 790–800. doi:10.1093/infdis/jit254. PMID 23757337.
  7. ↑ Pang XL, Honma S, Nakata S, Vesikari T (2000). "Human caliciviruses in acute gastroenteritis of young children in the community". J. Infect. Dis. 181 Suppl 2: S288–94. doi:10.1086/315590. PMID 10804140.
  8. ↑ Cohen MB (1991). "Etiology and mechanisms of acute infectious diarrhea in infants in the United States". J. Pediatr. 118 (4 Pt 2): S34–9. PMID 2007955.
  9. ↑ Irikura D, Monma C, Suzuki Y, Nakama A, Kai A, Fukui-Miyazaki A, Horiguchi Y, Yoshinari T, Sugita-Konishi Y, Kamata Y (2015). "Identification and Characterization of a New Enterotoxin Produced by Clostridium perfringens Isolated from Food Poisoning Outbreaks". PLoS ONE. 10 (11): e0138183. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0138183. PMC 4652906. PMID 26584048.
  10. ↑ Surawicz CM (2003). "Antibiotic-associated diarrhea in children: how many dirty diapers?". J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 37 (1): 2–3. PMID 12826999.
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