Neck masses differential diagnosis

Jump to navigation Jump to search

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Maneesha Nandimandalam, M.B.B.S.[2], Gertrude Djouka, M.D.[3], Qurrat-ul-ain Abid, M.D.[4]

Overview

Neck masses must be differentiated from congenital abnormalities, inflammatory, and malignant lesions.

Differentiating neck masses from other Diseases

Neck masses must be differentiated from congenital abnormalities, inflammatory, and malignant lesions.

Category Diseases Benign/

Malignant

Clinical manifestation Paraclinical findings Gold standard diagnosis Associated findings
Demography History Symptoms Signs Lab findings Histopathology Imaging
Pain Dysphagia Mass exam Others
Congenital Branchial cleft cyst[1]
  • Age: 1-15 years old
  • Familial occurrence
  • Lateral neck mass
±
  • Solitary
  • Smooth
  • Mobile
  • Well-defined
  • Non-pulsatile
  • Fluctuant
  • A pit at the opening of the cyst
Thyroglossal duct cyst[2][3]
  • Age: 1-10 years old
  • Midline neck mass
Hemangioma[4]
  • Presents with a flat red or purple patch
  • Regress gradually with age
  • Firm
  • Rubbery
  • Well-demarcated
Vascular malformation[5][6]
  • Incidence: 1 in 2000 to 5000 births
  • Gender: No predilection
±
  • Grow proportionally with age
  • MRI
Category Diseases Benign Demography History Pain Dysphagia Mass exam Others Lab findings Histopathology Imaging Gold standard diagnosis Associated findings
Congenital Lymphatic malformation[7][8]
  • Age: Birth-5 years old
  • Gender: No predilection
+
Laryngocele[9][10][11] +
  • Soft
  • Reducible
  • Increase in size on valsalva
  • Common in glass blowers and trumpet players
Ranula[12][13]
  • Well circumscribed
  • Fluctuant
  • Soft
Category Diseases Benign Demography History Pain Dysphagia Mass exam Others Lab findings Histopathology Imaging Gold standard diagnosis Associated findings
Congenital Teratoma[14][15]
  • Incidence: 1:4000 births
  • Gender: No predilection
  • Presents as a firm lateral neck mass
  • Firm
  • Non-tender
  • High ALP levels
Dermoid cyst[16][17]
  • Freely mobile
  • Solitary
  • Rubbery
  • Nonpulsatile
  • Noncompressible
  • Ultrasound: Thin walled, unilocular
  • CT with contrast: Well circumscribed, unilocular, sac-of-marbles appearance due to fatty tissue
Thymic cyst[18]
  • Presents as a soft mass, gradually enlarging, on left side of the neck (usual)
  • Soft
  • Compressible
Category Diseases Benign Demography History Pain Dysphagia Mass exam Others Lab findings Histopathology Imaging Gold standard diagnosis Associated findings
Inflammatory Acute sialadenitis[19]
  • Age: Occurs in all age groups
  • Gender: No predilection
+ -
Chronic sialadenitis[20]
  • Age: Occurs in all age groups
  • Gender: No predilection
  • Presents with an unilateral swelling
  • Recurrent episodes common
+
  • Non-tender
  • Firm
  • Smooth
Reactive viral lymphadenopathy CMV[21]
  • Age: 10-35 years old
  • Gender: No predilection
  • Flu-like illness
  • Non-tender
  • Soft
  • Usually not necessary
EBV[22][23]
  • Age: Mainly adolescents
  • Gender: No predilection
  • Non-tender
  • Firm
  • Usually not necessary
HIV[24]
  • Non-tender mass
  • Usually not necessary
Viral URI[25]
  • Incidence: More in fall & winter
  • Age: Common in elderly and infants
  • Non-tender
  • No specific findings
Category Diseases Benign Demography History Pain Dysphagia Mass exam Others Lab findings Histopathology Imaging Gold standard diagnosis Associated findings
Inflammatory Bacterial lymphadenopathy Tularemia[26][27]
  • Age: Affects all age groups
  • Gender: No predilection
+
  • No specific findings
Brucellosis[28]
  • Flu-like illness
+
  • No specific findings
Cat-scratch disease[29][30]
  • More common in the Southern of U.S among children and young adults
+
Actinomycosis[31][32]
  • No predilection in race, age
  • [[Male] to female ratio : 1.5 to 3:1
  • Tender at the beginning
  • Painless
  • Fluctuant
  • Non-tender at late stage
Mycobacterial infections[22][33][34]
Streptococcal infection[21][35] + +
Category Diseases Benign Demography History Pain Dysphagia Mass exam Others Lab findings Histopathology Imaging Gold standard diagnosis Associated findings
Inflammatory Parasitic lymphadenopathy Toxoplasma gondii[36][37]
  • 6 years old and older adults are more affected in U.S.
  • Seen in hot climates
+
  • Bilateral
  • Non-tender
  • Symmetrical
  • Non-fluctuant
Sarcoidosis[38][19]
  • More common in African American women aged 20-40 years
Sjögren syndrome[39]
  • Female to male ratio: 9 to 1
  • May happen at any age
  • Mean age: 40-50
+
Castleman disease (angiofollicular lymphoproliferative disease)[40][41]
  • Mean age: 30-40 years
Category Diseases Benign Demography History Pain Dysphagia Mass exam Others Lab findings Histopathology Imaging Gold standard diagnosis Associated findings
Inflammatory Kikuchi disease (histiocytic necrotizing lymphadenitis)[42]
  • High prevalence in Japan
  • More common in young adults < 30 years old
+
Kimura disease[43]
  • More common in Asian males
Rosai-Dorfman disease[44][45]
Kawasaki disease[46][47]
  • More common in children < 5 years old
  • Highest incidence in Japan
  • Most leading cause of acquired heart disease in U.S
Category Diseases Benign or Malignant Demography History Pain Dysphagia Mass exam Others Lab findings Histopathology Imaging Gold standard diagnosis Associated findings
Neoplasm Salivary gland neoplasm Pleomorphic adenoma[48][49] +
  • MRI: Homogenous on T1
  • Abundant myxochondroid stroma on T2
Warthin's tumor[50][51]
  • Male to female ratio: 4:1
  • More common in people aged 60-70 years old
+
Oncocytoma

[52]

  • Race: Caucasian patients predilection
  • Gender: No gender preference
  • Age: 50–70 years
± ±
  • CT:
    • Isodense expansive mass
    • Enhancement after intravenous contrast
    • Hypodense areas
  • MRI:
    • Isodensties on T1
    • Mass is hyperintense on T2
    • Enhancement on contrast
-
Monomorphic adenoma [53][54][55]
  • Age: 26-76 years
  • Rare in children
  • Gender: No predilection
± ±
  • Normal
-
Mucoepidermoid carcinoma

[56]

  • Age: Mean age of 59
  • Female predilection
± ±
  • Cystic and solid component with variable appearance on CT and MRI
  • Association with CMV
Category Diseases Benign Demography History Pain Dysphagia Mass exam Others Lab findings Histopathology Imaging Gold standard diagnosis Associated findings
Neoplasm Salivary gland neoplasm Adenoid cystic carcinoma [57]
  • Age: 40s-60s
  • Gender: Female predominance
± ±
Adenocarcinoma

[58]

  • Age: young age predilection
Salivary duct cancer[59][60][61]

(Highly aggressive)

  • Incidence: 1-3%
  • Gender: Male predilection
  • Mean age: 55-61 years old
  • Rapidly growing mass with jaw involvement
± ±
  • Painless
  • Hard
  • Non-compressible mass
Squamous cell carcinoma[62][63]
  • Incidence: rare
  • Age: Old age , 61-68 years
  • Male predilection
  • Present as painful growing mass on jaw
+
  • Tumor dimension can be delineated using both CT and MRI
Category Diseases Benign Demography History Pain Dysphagia Mass exam Others Lab findings Histopathology Imaging Gold standard diagnosis Associated findings
Neoplasm Hypopharyngeal cancer[64][65][66]
  • More common in males
  • Age: 55-65 years old
  • Incidence: < 1/100,000 in U.S.
  • More common in Japan, India, Iran
+
Parathyroid cancer[67][68][69]
  • Incidence: Rare
  • Mean age : 44-54 years old
  • Gender: Female predilection
+ +
Carotid body tumors[70][71][72][73]
  • Age: 26-55 years
  • Male predominance
+
Paraganglioma[74][75][76]
  • Age 50-70 years
  • More in females
Category Diseases Benign Demography History Pain Dysphagia Mass exam Others Lab findings Histopathology Imaging Gold standard diagnosis Associated findings
Neoplasm Schwannoma[77][78][79]
  • Rare tumor
  • Incidence: 1-10%
+ ±
  • Multiple
  • Slow growing nodules on the skin
  • May be normal
  • Encapsulated neural tissue growth
Lymphoma [80][81][82][83][84][85]
  • Age: Predilection for older age
  • Mean age: 55
±
  • On complete node analysis four patterns are described:
    • Nodular/follicular
    • Diffuse pattern
    • Transition from a nodular to a diffuse pattern in adjacent nodes
    • Transition from a lower to a higher grade of involvement within a single node
Liposarcoma [86][87][88][89]
  • Rare tumor
  • Age: Relatively in older age
  • Gender: No gender predilection
  • Mobile mass
  • Few symptoms until they grow enough to compress the surrounding structures
  • Symptoms of neural deficit, pain, tingling, or skin changes
±
  • Intact skin and normal color
  • Normal
Category Diseases Benign Demography History Pain Dysphagia Mass exam Others Lab findings Histopathology Imaging Gold standard diagnosis Associated findings
Neoplasm Lipoma [90][91][92]
  • One or multiple soft, painless skin nodules
  • May causes pain or compressive symptoms
±
  • Normal
  • Normal
  • Diagnoses is usually clinical
  • Tissue biopsy may show:
    • Bundle of well-demarcated lipocytes
    • Single nuclei aligned to the side
    • Intra-cytoplasimic fat granules
Glomus vagale, glomus jugulare tumors[93][94][95][96][97][98]
  • Rare tumor
  • Painless slowly enlarging mass in the neck
±
  • Normal
Metastatic head and neck cancer[99][100] ±
  • Vary depending on the underlying cancer
Category Diseases Benign Demography History Pain Dysphagia Mass exam Others Lab findings Histopathology Imaging Gold standard diagnosis Associated findings
Other Laryngeal cancer[101][102] Benign/Malignant
  • Older males
  • Younger patients with HPV infection or smoking history
± ±

human papillomavirus (HPV) infection

Arteriovenous fistula

[103][104]

  • Depends on the risk factors
  • Varies depending on the etiology
Thyroid nodule/ Goiter

[105][106][107][108]

  • Female predominance
  • Young age (benign causes)
  • Old age (malignant etiology)
± ±
  • Painless
  • Non-tender
  • Asymmetrical neck mass in front of neck
  • With smooth overlying skin
  • Nodular surface
  • Depending on the type:
  • Normal to low TSH levels in case of malignancy
  • High TSH levels in case of goiter
Category Diseases Benign Demography History Pain Dysphagia Mass exam Others Lab findings Histopathology Imaging Gold standard diagnosis Associated findings

References

  1. Nahata, Vaishali (2016). "Branchial cleft cyst". Indian Journal of Dermatology. 61 (6): 701. doi:10.4103/0019-5154.193718. ISSN 0019-5154.
  2. Amos J, Shermetaro C. PMID 30085599. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  3. Deaver MJ, Silman EF, Lotfipour S (August 2009). "Infected thyroglossal duct cyst". West J Emerg Med. 10 (3): 205. PMC 2729228. PMID 19718389.
  4. Léauté-Labrèze, C.; Prey, S.; Ezzedine, K. (2011). "Infantile haemangioma: Part I. Pathophysiology, epidemiology, clinical features, life cycle and associated structural abnormalities". Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology. 25 (11): 1245–1253. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2011.04102.x. ISSN 0926-9959.
  5. Cox JA, Bartlett E, Lee EI (May 2014). "Vascular malformations: a review". Semin Plast Surg. 28 (2): 58–63. doi:10.1055/s-0034-1376263. PMC 4078214. PMID 25045330.
  6. Behravesh S, Yakes W, Gupta N, Naidu S, Chong BW, Khademhosseini A, Oklu R (December 2016). "Venous malformations: clinical diagnosis and treatment". Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 6 (6): 557–569. doi:10.21037/cdt.2016.11.10. PMC 5220204. PMID 28123976.
  7. Cox JA, Bartlett E, Lee EI (May 2014). "Vascular malformations: a review". Semin Plast Surg. 28 (2): 58–63. doi:10.1055/s-0034-1376263. PMC 4078214. PMID 25045330.
  8. Guruprasad Y, Chauhan DS (September 2012). "Cervical cystic hygroma". J Maxillofac Oral Surg. 11 (3): 333–6. doi:10.1007/s12663-010-0149-x. PMC 3428451. PMID 23997487.
  9. Werner RL, Schroeder JW, Castle JT (March 2014). "Bilateral laryngoceles". Head Neck Pathol. 8 (1): 110–3. doi:10.1007/s12105-013-0478-4. PMC 3950389. PMID 23881550.
  10. Prasad KC, Vijayalakshmi S, Prasad SC (December 2008). "Laryngoceles - presentations and management". Indian J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 60 (4): 303–8. doi:10.1007/s12070-008-0108-8. PMC 3476818. PMID 23120570.
  11. Mahdoufi R, Barhmi I, Tazi N, Abada R, Roubal M, Mahtar M (July 2017). "Mixed Pyolaryngocele: A Rare Case of Deep Neck Infection". Iran J Otorhinolaryngol. 29 (93): 225–228. PMC 5554815. PMID 28819622.
  12. Packiri S, Gurunathan D, Selvarasu K (September 2017). "Management of Paediatric Oral Ranula: A Systematic Review". J Clin Diagn Res. 11 (9): ZE06–ZE09. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2017/28498.10622. PMC 5713871. PMID 29207849.
  13. Kokong D, Iduh A, Chukwu I, Mugu J, Nuhu S, Augustine S (June 2017). "Ranula: Current Concept of Pathophysiologic Basis and Surgical Management Options". World J Surg. 41 (6): 1476–1481. doi:10.1007/s00268-017-3901-2. PMC 5422487. PMID 28194490.
  14. Chauhan DS, Guruprasad Y, Inderchand S (September 2011). "Congenital nasopharyngeal teratoma with a cleft palate: case report and a 7 year follow up". J Maxillofac Oral Surg. 10 (3): 253–6. doi:10.1007/s12663-010-0140-6. PMC 3238564. PMID 22942597.
  15. Bahgat M, Bahgat Y, Bahgat A (July 2012). "Oropharyngeal teratoma, a rare cause of airway obstruction in neonates". BMJ Case Rep. 2012. doi:10.1136/bcr-2012-006580. PMC 4543570. PMID 22814615.
  16. Paradis, Josée; Koltai, Peter J. (2015). "Pediatric Teratoma and Dermoid Cysts". Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America. 48 (1): 121–136. doi:10.1016/j.otc.2014.09.009. ISSN 0030-6665.
  17. Gaddikeri S, Vattoth S, Gaddikeri RS, Stuart R, Harrison K, Young D, Bhargava P (2014). "Congenital cystic neck masses: embryology and imaging appearances, with clinicopathological correlation". Curr Probl Diagn Radiol. 43 (2): 55–67. doi:10.1067/j.cpradiol.2013.12.001. PMID 24629659.
  18. Gaddikeri, Santhosh; Vattoth, Surjith; Gaddikeri, Ramya S.; Stuart, Royal; Harrison, Keith; Young, Daniel; Bhargava, Puneet (2014). "Congenital Cystic Neck Masses: Embryology and Imaging Appearances, With Clinicopathological Correlation". Current Problems in Diagnostic Radiology. 43 (2): 55–67. doi:10.1067/j.cpradiol.2013.12.001. ISSN 0363-0188.
  19. 19.0 19.1 Abdel Razek A, Mukherji S (June 2017). "Imaging of sialadenitis". Neuroradiol J. 30 (3): 205–215. doi:10.1177/1971400916682752. PMC 5480791. PMID 28059621. Vancouver style error: initials (help)
  20. Orlandi MA, Pistorio V, Guerra PA (2013). "Ultrasound in sialadenitis". J Ultrasound. 16 (1): 3–9. doi:10.1007/s40477-013-0002-4. PMC 3774898. PMID 24046793.
  21. 21.0 21.1 Mohseni S, Shojaiefard A, Khorgami Z, Alinejad S, Ghorbani A, Ghafouri A (March 2014). "Peripheral lymphadenopathy: approach and diagnostic tools". Iran J Med Sci. 39 (2 Suppl): 158–70. PMC 3993046. PMID 24753638.
  22. 22.0 22.1 Mohseni S, Shojaiefard A, Khorgami Z, Alinejad S, Ghorbani A, Ghafouri A (March 2014). "Peripheral lymphadenopathy: approach and diagnostic tools". Iran J Med Sci. 39 (2 Suppl): 158–70. PMC 3993046. PMID 24753638.
  23. Stuhlmann-Laeisz C, Oschlies I, Klapper W (December 2014). "Detection of EBV in reactive and neoplastic lymphoproliferations in adults-when and how?". J Hematop. 7 (4): 165–170. doi:10.1007/s12308-014-0209-0. PMC 4243011. PMID 25478033.
  24. Moonim MT, Alarcon L, Freeman J, Mahadeva U, van der Walt JD, Lucas SB (March 2010). "Identifying HIV infection in diagnostic histopathology tissue samples--the role of HIV-1 p24 immunohistochemistry in identifying clinically unsuspected HIV infection: a 3-year analysis". Histopathology. 56 (4): 530–41. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2559.2010.03513.x. PMID 20459560.
  25. Thomas M, Bomar PA. PMID 30422556. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  26. Grunow R, Splettstoesser W, McDonald S, Otterbein C, O'Brien T, Morgan C, Aldrich J, Hofer E, Finke EJ, Meyer H (January 2000). "Detection of Francisella tularensis in biological specimens using a capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, an immunochromatographic handheld assay, and a PCR". Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 7 (1): 86–90. PMC 95828. PMID 10618283.
  27. Koç, Sema (2012). "Clinical and laboratory findings of tularemia: a retrospective analysis". The Turkish Journal of Ear Nose and Throat: 26–31. doi:10.5606/kbbihtisas.2012.005. ISSN 1300-7475.
  28. Golshani M, Buozari S (November 2017). "A review of Brucellosis in Iran: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, Diagnosis, Control, and Prevention". Iran. Biomed. J. 21 (6): 349–59. PMC 5572431. PMID 28766326.
  29. "Cat-Scratch Disease in the United States, 2005–2013 - Volume 22, Number 10—October 2016 - Emerging Infectious Diseases journal - CDC".
  30. Hansmann, Y.; DeMartino, S.; Piemont, Y.; Meyer, N.; Mariet, P.; Heller, R.; Christmann, D.; Jaulhac, B. (2005). "Diagnosis of Cat Scratch Disease with Detection of Bartonella henselae by PCR: a Study of Patients with Lymph Node Enlargement". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 43 (8): 3800–3806. doi:10.1128/JCM.43.8.3800-3806.2005. ISSN 0095-1137.
  31. Valour F, Sénéchal A, Dupieux C, Karsenty J, Lustig S, Breton P, Gleizal A, Boussel L, Laurent F, Braun E, Chidiac C, Ader F, Ferry T (2014). "Actinomycosis: etiology, clinical features, diagnosis, treatment, and management". Infect Drug Resist. 7: 183–97. doi:10.2147/IDR.S39601. PMC 4094581. PMID 25045274.
  32. Bonnefond S, Catroux M, Melenotte C, Karkowski L, Rolland L, Trouillier S, Raffray L (June 2016). "Clinical features of actinomycosis: A retrospective, multicenter study of 28 cases of miscellaneous presentations". Medicine (Baltimore). 95 (24): e3923. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000003923. PMC 4998488. PMID 27311002.
  33. Suskind DL, Handler SD, Tom LW, Potsic WP, Wetmore RF (July 1997). "Nontuberculous mycobacterial cervical adenitis". Clin Pediatr (Phila). 36 (7): 403–9. doi:10.1177/000992289703600705. PMID 9241478.
  34. Drobniewski FA, Caws M, Gibson A, Young D (March 2003). "Modern laboratory diagnosis of tuberculosis". Lancet Infect Dis. 3 (3): 141–7. PMID 12614730.
  35. Kenealy T (November 2007). "Sore throat". BMJ Clin Evid. 2007. PMC 2943825. PMID 19450346.
  36. Kumar GG, Mahadevan A, Guruprasad AS, Kovoor JM, Satishchandra P, Nath A, Ranga U, Shankar SK (June 2010). "Eccentric target sign in cerebral toxoplasmosis: neuropathological correlate to the imaging feature". J Magn Reson Imaging. 31 (6): 1469–72. doi:10.1002/jmri.22192. PMC 2908244. PMID 20512900.
  37. [+https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/diagnosis.html "CDC - Toxoplasmosis - Diagnosis"] Check |url= value (help).
  38. "Sarcoidosis | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)".
  39. Mavragani CP, Moutsopoulos HM (October 2014). "Sjögren syndrome". CMAJ. 186 (15): E579–86. doi:10.1503/cmaj.122037. PMC 4203623. PMID 24566651.
  40. Dispenzieri A, Armitage JO, Loe MJ, Geyer SM, Allred J, Camoriano JK, Menke DM, Weisenburger DD, Ristow K, Dogan A, Habermann TM (November 2012). "The clinical spectrum of Castleman's disease". Am. J. Hematol. 87 (11): 997–1002. doi:10.1002/ajh.23291. PMC 3900496. PMID 22791417.
  41. Saeed-Abdul-Rahman I, Al-Amri AM (September 2012). "Castleman disease". Korean J Hematol. 47 (3): 163–77. doi:10.5045/kjh.2012.47.3.163. PMC 3464333. PMID 23071471.
  42. Bosch X, Guilabert A (May 2006). "Kikuchi-Fujimoto disease". Orphanet J Rare Dis. 1: 18. doi:10.1186/1750-1172-1-18. PMC 1481509. PMID 16722618.
  43. AlGhamdi FE, Al-Khatib TA, Marzouki HZ, AlGarni MA (March 2016). "Kimura disease: No age or ethnicity limit". Saudi Med J. 37 (3): 315–9. doi:10.15537/smj.2016.3.14448. PMC 4800898. PMID 26905356.
  44. "Rosai-Dorfman disease | Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD) – an NCATS Program".
  45. Foucar E, Rosai J, Dorfman R (February 1990). "Sinus histiocytosis with massive lymphadenopathy (Rosai-Dorfman disease): review of the entity". Semin Diagn Pathol. 7 (1): 19–73. PMID 2180012.
  46. "About Kawasaki Disease | Kawasaki Disease | CDC".
  47. "Kawasaki Disease | National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)".
  48. Debnath SC, Adhyapok AK (June 2010). "Pleomorphic adenoma (benign mixed tumour) of the minor salivary glands of the upper lip". J Maxillofac Oral Surg. 9 (2): 205–8. doi:10.1007/s12663-010-0052-5. PMC 3244097. PMID 22190789.
  49. Kato H, Kawaguchi M, Ando T, Mizuta K, Aoki M, Matsuo M (August 2018). "Pleomorphic adenoma of salivary glands: common and uncommon CT and MR imaging features". Jpn J Radiol. 36 (8): 463–471. doi:10.1007/s11604-018-0747-y. PMID 29845358.
  50. Chulam TC, Noronha Francisco AL, Goncalves Filho J, Pinto Alves CA, Kowalski LP (December 2013). "Warthin's tumour of the parotid gland: our experience". Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital. 33 (6): 393–7. PMID 24376295.
  51. "Warthin tumor | Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD) – an NCATS Program".
  52. Chen B, Hentzelman JI, Walker RJ, Lai JP (2016). "Oncocytoma of the Submandibular Gland: Diagnosis and Treatment Based on Clinicopathology". Case Rep Otolaryngol. 2016: 8719030. doi:10.1155/2016/8719030. PMC 5045990. PMID 27722003.
  53. Kim KH, Sung MW, Kim JW, Koo JW (July 2000). "Pleomorphic adenoma of the trachea". Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 123 (1 Pt 1): 147–8. doi:10.1067/mhn.2000.102809. PMID 10889498.
  54. Pramod Krishna B (June 2013). "Pleomorphic Adenoma of Minor Salivary Gland in a 14 year Old Child". J Maxillofac Oral Surg. 12 (2): 228–31. doi:10.1007/s12663-010-0125-5. PMC 3681990. PMID 24431845.
  55. Kessler AT, Bhatt AA (2018). "Review of the Major and Minor Salivary Glands, Part 2: Neoplasms and Tumor-like Lesions". J Clin Imaging Sci. 8: 48. doi:10.4103/jcis.JCIS_46_18. PMC 6251244. PMID 30546932.
  56. Chenevert J, Barnes LE, Chiosea SI (February 2011). "Mucoepidermoid carcinoma: a five-decade journey". Virchows Arch. 458 (2): 133–40. doi:10.1007/s00428-011-1040-y. PMID 21243374.
  57. Jones AV, Craig GT, Speight PM, Franklin CD (April 2008). "The range and demographics of salivary gland tumours diagnosed in a UK population". Oral Oncol. 44 (4): 407–17. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2007.05.010. PMID 17825603.
  58. Beltran D, Faquin WC, Gallagher G, August M (March 2006). "Selective immunohistochemical comparison of polymorphous low-grade adenocarcinoma and adenoid cystic carcinoma". J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg. 64 (3): 415–23. doi:10.1016/j.joms.2005.11.027. PMID 16487803.
  59. Mlika M, Kourda N, Zidi Y, Aloui R, Zneidi N, Rammeh S, Zermani R, Jilani SB (January 2012). "Salivary duct carcinoma of the parotid gland". J Oral Maxillofac Pathol. 16 (1): 134–6. doi:10.4103/0973-029X.92992. PMC 3303509. PMID 22434951.
  60. Schmitt NC, Kang H, Sharma A (November 2017). "Salivary duct carcinoma: An aggressive salivary gland malignancy with opportunities for targeted therapy". Oral Oncol. 74: 40–48. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2017.09.008. PMC 5685667. PMID 29103750.
  61. Simpson RH (July 2013). "Salivary duct carcinoma: new developments--morphological variants including pure in situ high grade lesions; proposed molecular classification". Head Neck Pathol. 7 Suppl 1: S48–58. doi:10.1007/s12105-013-0456-x. PMC 3712088. PMID 23821208.
  62. Manvikar V, Ramulu S, Ravishanker ST, Chakravarthy C (May 2014). "Squamous cell carcinoma of submandibular salivary gland: A rare case report". J Oral Maxillofac Pathol. 18 (2): 299–302. doi:10.4103/0973-029X.140909. PMC 4196305. PMID 25328317.
  63. Ying YL, Johnson JT, Myers EN (July 2006). "Squamous cell carcinoma of the parotid gland". Head Neck. 28 (7): 626–32. doi:10.1002/hed.20360. PMID 16475198.
  64. Helliwell TR (February 2003). "acp Best Practice No 169. Evidence based pathology: squamous carcinoma of the hypopharynx". J. Clin. Pathol. 56 (2): 81–5. PMC 1769882. PMID 12560383.
  65. International Journal of Recent Scientific Research. doi:10.24327/IJRSR. ISSN 0976-3031. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  66. Maasland, Denise HE; van den Brandt, Piet A; Kremer, Bernd; Goldbohm, R Alexandra; Schouten, Leo J (2014). "Alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking and the risk of subtypes of head-neck cancer: results from the Netherlands Cohort Study". BMC Cancer. 14 (1). doi:10.1186/1471-2407-14-187. ISSN 1471-2407.
  67. Wei CH, Harari A (March 2012). "Parathyroid carcinoma: update and guidelines for management". Curr Treat Options Oncol. 13 (1): 11–23. doi:10.1007/s11864-011-0171-3. PMID 22327883.
  68. Sahasranam P, Tran MT, Mohamed H, Friedman TC (August 2007). "Multiglandular parathyroid carcinoma: a case report and brief review". South. Med. J. 100 (8): 841–4. doi:10.1097/SMJ.0b013e318073ca37. PMID 17713315.
  69. Holmes EC, Morton DL, Ketcham AS (April 1969). "Parathyroid carcinoma: a collective review". Ann. Surg. 169 (4): 631–40. PMC 1387475. PMID 4886854.
  70. Sajid MS, Hamilton G, Baker DM (August 2007). "A multicenter review of carotid body tumour management". Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 34 (2): 127–30. doi:10.1016/j.ejvs.2007.01.015. PMID 17400487.
  71. Boedeker CC, Ridder GJ, Schipper J (2005). "Paragangliomas of the head and neck: diagnosis and treatment". Fam. Cancer. 4 (1): 55–9. doi:10.1007/s10689-004-2154-z. PMID 15883711.
  72. Pellitteri PK, Rinaldo A, Myssiorek D, Gary Jackson C, Bradley PJ, Devaney KO, Shaha AR, Netterville JL, Manni JJ, Ferlito A (July 2004). "Paragangliomas of the head and neck". Oral Oncol. 40 (6): 563–75. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2003.09.004. PMID 15063383.
  73. Darouassi Y, Alaoui M, Mliha Touati M, Al Maghraoui O, En-Nouali A, Bouaity B, Ammar H (August 2017). "Carotid Body Tumors: A Case Series and Review of the Literature". Ann Vasc Surg. 43: 265–271. doi:10.1016/j.avsg.2017.03.167. PMID 28478173.
  74. Neumann HP, Pawlu C, Peczkowska M, Bausch B, McWhinney SR, Muresan M, Buchta M, Franke G, Klisch J, Bley TA, Hoegerle S, Boedeker CC, Opocher G, Schipper J, Januszewicz A, Eng C (August 2004). "Distinct clinical features of paraganglioma syndromes associated with SDHB and SDHD gene mutations". JAMA. 292 (8): 943–51. doi:10.1001/jama.292.8.943. PMID 15328326.
  75. Erickson D, Kudva YC, Ebersold MJ, Thompson GB, Grant CS, van Heerden JA, Young WF (November 2001). "Benign paragangliomas: clinical presentation and treatment outcomes in 236 patients". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 86 (11): 5210–6. doi:10.1210/jcem.86.11.8034. PMID 11701678.
  76. O'Riordain DS, Young WF, Grant CS, Carney JA, van Heerden JA (September 1996). "Clinical spectrum and outcome of functional extraadrenal paraganglioma". World J Surg. 20 (7): 916–21, discussion 922. PMID 8678971.
  77. Hilton DA, Hanemann CO (April 2014). "Schwannomas and their pathogenesis". Brain Pathol. 24 (3): 205–20. doi:10.1111/bpa.12125. PMID 24450866.
  78. Albert P, Patel J, Badawy K, Weissinger W, Brenner M, Bourhill I, Parnell J (2017). "Peripheral Nerve Schwannoma: A Review of Varying Clinical Presentations and Imaging Findings". J Foot Ankle Surg. 56 (3): 632–637. doi:10.1053/j.jfas.2016.12.003. PMID 28237565.
  79. Wong B, Bathala S, Grant D (January 2017). "Laryngeal schwannoma: a systematic review". Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 274 (1): 25–34. doi:10.1007/s00405-016-4013-6. PMID 27020268. Vancouver style error: initials (help)
  80. Anderson T, Chabner BA, Young RC, Berard CW, Garvin AJ, Simon RM, DeVita VT (December 1982). "Malignant lymphoma. 1. The histology and staging of 473 patients at the National Cancer Institute". Cancer. 50 (12): 2699–707. PMID 7139563.
  81. Anderson T, Chabner BA, Young RC, Berard CW, Garvin AJ, Simon RM, DeVita VT (December 1982). "Malignant lymphoma. 1. The histology and staging of 473 patients at the National Cancer Institute". Cancer. 50 (12): 2699–707. PMID 7139563.
  82. Negri E, Little D, Boiocchi M, La Vecchia C, Franceschi S (August 2004). "B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and hepatitis C virus infection: a systematic review". Int. J. Cancer. 111 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1002/ijc.20205. PMID 15185336.
  83. Moormeier JA, Williams SF, Golomb HM (February 1990). "The staging of non-Hodgkin's lymphomas". Semin. Oncol. 17 (1): 43–50. PMID 2406917.
  84. Negri E, Little D, Boiocchi M, La Vecchia C, Franceschi S (August 2004). "B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and hepatitis C virus infection: a systematic review". Int. J. Cancer. 111 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1002/ijc.20205. PMID 15185336.
  85. Anderson T, Chabner BA, Young RC, Berard CW, Garvin AJ, Simon RM, DeVita VT (December 1982). "Malignant lymphoma. 1. The histology and staging of 473 patients at the National Cancer Institute". Cancer. 50 (12): 2699–707. PMID 7139563.
  86. Evans HL (January 2007). "Atypical lipomatous tumor, its variants, and its combined forms: a study of 61 cases, with a minimum follow-up of 10 years". Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 31 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1097/01.pas.0000213406.95440.7a. PMID 17197914.
  87. Conyers R, Young S, Thomas DM (2011). "Liposarcoma: molecular genetics and therapeutics". Sarcoma. 2011: 483154. doi:10.1155/2011/483154. PMC 3021868. PMID 21253554.
  88. Alaggio R, Coffin CM, Weiss SW, Bridge JA, Issakov J, Oliveira AM, Folpe AL (May 2009). "Liposarcomas in young patients: a study of 82 cases occurring in patients younger than 22 years of age". Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 33 (5): 645–58. doi:10.1097/PAS.0b013e3181963c9c. PMID 19194281.
  89. Serpell JW, Chen RY (July 2007). "Review of large deep lipomatous tumours". ANZ J Surg. 77 (7): 524–9. doi:10.1111/j.1445-2197.2007.04042.x. PMID 17610686.
  90. de Bree E, Karatzanis A, Hunt JL, Strojan P, Rinaldo A, Takes RP, Ferlito A, de Bree R (May 2015). "Lipomatous tumours of the head and neck: a spectrum of biological behaviour". Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 272 (5): 1061–77. doi:10.1007/s00405-014-3065-8. PMID 24800932.
  91. Rydholm A, Berg NO (December 1983). "Size, site and clinical incidence of lipoma. Factors in the differential diagnosis of lipoma and sarcoma". Acta Orthop Scand. 54 (6): 929–34. PMID 6670522.
  92. Myhre-Jensen O (June 1981). "A consecutive 7-year series of 1331 benign soft tissue tumours. Clinicopathologic data. Comparison with sarcomas". Acta Orthop Scand. 52 (3): 287–93. PMID 7282321.
  93. Urquhart AC, Johnson JT, Myers EN, Schechter GL (April 1994). "Glomus vagale: paraganglioma of the vagus nerve". Laryngoscope. 104 (4): 440–5. doi:10.1288/00005537-199404000-00008. PMID 8164483.
  94. Valavanis A, Schubiger O, Oguz M (1983). "High-resolution CT investigation of nonchromaffin paragangliomas of the temporal bone". AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 4 (3): 516–9. PMID 6308990.
  95. Urquhart AC, Johnson JT, Myers EN, Schechter GL (April 1994). "Glomus vagale: paraganglioma of the vagus nerve". Laryngoscope. 104 (4): 440–5. doi:10.1288/00005537-199404000-00008. PMID 8164483.
  96. Stein PP, Black HR (January 1991). "A simplified diagnostic approach to pheochromocytoma. A review of the literature and report of one institution's experience". Medicine (Baltimore). 70 (1): 46–66. PMID 1988766.
  97. Sajid MS, Hamilton G, Baker DM (August 2007). "A multicenter review of carotid body tumour management". Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 34 (2): 127–30. doi:10.1016/j.ejvs.2007.01.015. PMID 17400487.
  98. Boedeker CC, Ridder GJ, Schipper J (2005). "Paragangliomas of the head and neck: diagnosis and treatment". Fam. Cancer. 4 (1): 55–9. doi:10.1007/s10689-004-2154-z. PMID 15883711.
  99. Gluckman JL, Robbins KT, Fried MP (1990). "Cervical metastatic squamous carcinoma of unknown or occult primary source". Head Neck. 12 (5): 440–3. PMID 2211107.
  100. Waltonen JD, Ozer E, Hall NC, Schuller DE, Agrawal A (October 2009). "Metastatic carcinoma of the neck of unknown primary origin: evolution and efficacy of the modern workup". Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 135 (10): 1024–9. doi:10.1001/archoto.2009.145. PMID 19841343.
  101. Feldman PS, Kaplan MJ, Johns ME, Cantrell RW (November 1983). "Fine-needle aspiration in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck". Arch Otolaryngol. 109 (11): 735–42. PMID 6639441.
  102. Grénman R, Koivunen P, Minn H (2015). "[Laryngeal cancer in Finland]". Duodecim (in Finnish). 131 (4): 331–7. PMID 26237923.
  103. Guneyli S, Cinar C, Bozkaya H, Korkmaz M, Oran I (September 2016). "Endovascular management of congenital arteriovenous fistulae in the neck". Diagn Interv Imaging. 97 (9): 871–5. doi:10.1016/j.diii.2015.08.006. PMID 26972281.
  104. Gobin YP, Garcia de la Fuente JA, Herbreteau D, Houdart E, Merland JJ (November 1993). "Endovascular treatment of external carotid-jugular fistulae in the parotid region". Neurosurgery. 33 (5): 812–6. PMID 8264877.
  105. Madjar S, Weissberg D (July 1995). "Retrosternal goiter". Chest. 108 (1): 78–82. PMID 7606997.
  106. Hedayati N, McHenry CR (March 2002). "The clinical presentation and operative management of nodular and diffuse substernal thyroid disease". Am Surg. 68 (3): 245–51, discussion 251–2. PMID 11893102.
  107. Hughes K, Eastman C (August 2012). "Goitre - causes, investigation and management". Aust Fam Physician. 41 (8): 572–6. PMID 23145396.
  108. Hermus AR, Huysmans DA (August 2000). "[Diagnosis and therapy of patients with euthyroid goiter]". Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd (in Dutch; Flemish). 144 (34): 1623–7. PMID 10972051.