COVID-19 associated pediatric complications: Difference between revisions
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__NOTOC__ | __NOTOC__ | ||
{{Main|COVID-19 | {{SI}} | ||
''Main article:'' [[COVID-19]] | |||
'''For COVID-19 frequently asked inpatient questions, click [[COVID-19 frequently asked inpatient questions|here]]''' | |||
'''For COVID-19 frequently asked outpatient questions, click [[COVID-19 frequently asked outpatient questions|here]]''' | |||
{{CMG}} {{AE}} {{HAR}}; {{Asra}} {{Neepa Shah}}; {{AIA}} | {{CMG}} {{AE}} {{HAR}}; {{Asra}} {{Neepa Shah}}; {{AIA}} | ||
'''''Synonyms and Keywords:''''' [[Novel human coronavirus infection|Novel coronavirus]], [[COVID-19]], [[COVID-19|Wuhan coronavirus]], coronavirus disease-19, [[COVID-19|coronavirus disease 2019]], [[SARS-CoV-2]], [[COVID-19]], COVID-19, 2019-nCoV, Neonatal COVID-19, Pediatric COVID-19, Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children. | |||
==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
Cases of [[COVID-19]] have been reported in children. | Cases of [[COVID-19]] have been reported in children, yet the prevalence is lower than adults. The presentation of COVID-19 in children ranges from [[asymptomatic]] and [[mild]] cases to the multisystem inflammatory syndrome. Given that [[asymptomatic]] patients may not get tested for [[COVID-19]] and are potential [[carriers]] for viral transmission, high clinical suspicion is required to prevent such transmissions to a population at risk of developing severe disease. A pediatrician should be cautious to exclude other causes of respiratory illnesses like [[seasonal influenza]] before any diagnostic tests. As no effective treatment has been approved by the [[FDA]] yet, the goal of managing patients with [[COVID-19]] is to treat the [[symptoms]], prevent and treat [[complications]], and provide [[supportive care]]. | ||
==Historical Perspective== | ==Historical Perspective== | ||
*The [[novel coronavirus]], [[SARS-CoV-2]], is identified as the cause of an outbreak of [[respiratory illness]] first detected in Wuhan, China in late December 2019. | |||
*On January 30, 2020,the [[World Health Organization]]([[WHO]]) declared the outbreak as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. | |||
*On March 12, 2020, the [[World Health Organization]] declared the [[COVID-19]] outbreak a [[pandemic]]. | |||
*Shortly after its discovery, reports of [[COVID-19]] infection in children started surfacing. | |||
==Classification== | ==Classification== | ||
*'''Asymptomatic presentation''' | *'''Asymptomatic presentation''' | ||
**Children present with no clinical signs or [[Symptom|symptoms]] with normal chest imaging. | **Children present with no clinical signs or [[Symptom|symptoms]] with normal chest imaging. | ||
** Among | ** Among 2,143 children with [[COVID-19|COVID]]-19 infection 4% of children were [[asymptomatic]]. | ||
** According to one study 14.2% of children were asymptomatic. Another study | ** According to one study, 14.2% of children were asymptomatic. Another study found 18% of asymptomatic children tested positive for [[COVID-19|COVID]]-19. | ||
*'''Mild Disease''' | *'''Mild Disease''' | ||
** Children present with mild symptoms including [[fever]], [[fatigue]], [[myalgia]], [[cough]]. | ** Children present with mild symptoms including [[fever]], [[fatigue]], [[myalgia]], [[cough]]. | ||
** Among | ** Among 2,143 children with [[COVID-19|COVID]]-19 infection 51% of children had a mild disease of [[COVID-19|COVID]]-19. | ||
** | **According to one study, 36.3% of children present with a mild form of the disease. | ||
*'''Moderate''' | *'''Moderate''' | ||
** Children present with [[pneumonia]] | ** Children present with [[pneumonia]] and symptoms or subclinical disease with abnormal chest imaging. | ||
**Among | **Among 2,143 children with [[COVID-19|COVID]]-19 infection 39% of children had a moderate presentation.<ref name="EastinEastin2020">{{cite journal|last1=Eastin|first1=Carly|last2=Eastin|first2=Travis|title=Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China|journal=The Journal of Emergency Medicine|volume=58|issue=4|year=2020|pages=712–713|issn=07364679|doi=10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.04.006}}</ref> | ||
*'''Severe''' | *'''Severe''' | ||
**Children present with [[dyspnea]], [[central cyanosis]], [[hypoxia]].<ref name="EastinEastin2020">{{cite journal|last1=Eastin|first1=Carly|last2=Eastin|first2=Travis|title=Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China|journal=The Journal of Emergency Medicine|volume=58|issue=4|year=2020|pages=712–713|issn=07364679|doi=10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.04.006}}</ref> | **Children present with [[dyspnea]], [[central cyanosis]], [[hypoxia]].<ref name="EastinEastin2020">{{cite journal|last1=Eastin|first1=Carly|last2=Eastin|first2=Travis|title=Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China|journal=The Journal of Emergency Medicine|volume=58|issue=4|year=2020|pages=712–713|issn=07364679|doi=10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.04.006}}</ref> | ||
**Among | **Among 2,143 children with [[COVID-19|COVID]]-19 infection 5% of children had a severe presentation.<ref name="EastinEastin2020">{{cite journal|last1=Eastin|first1=Carly|last2=Eastin|first2=Travis|title=Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China|journal=The Journal of Emergency Medicine|volume=58|issue=4|year=2020|pages=712–713|issn=07364679|doi=10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.04.006}}</ref> | ||
** 2.1% of children present with a severe form of [[COVID-19|COVID]]-19 disease. | ** 2.1% of children present with a severe form of [[COVID-19|COVID]]-19 disease. | ||
** Children with underlying comorbidities are more susceptible to | ** Children with underlying comorbidities are more susceptible to developing severe [[COVID-19|COVID]]-19 symptoms. | ||
*'''Critical''' | *'''Critical''' | ||
**Children present with [[acute respiratory distress syndrome]](ARDS), [[respiratory failure]], [[shock]], or [[multi-organ dysfunction]].<ref name="EastinEastin2020">{{cite journal|last1=Eastin|first1=Carly|last2=Eastin|first2=Travis|title=Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China|journal=The Journal of Emergency Medicine|volume=58|issue=4|year=2020|pages=712–713|issn=07364679|doi=10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.04.006}}</ref> | **Children present with [[acute respiratory distress syndrome]](ARDS), [[respiratory failure]], [[shock]], or [[multi-organ dysfunction]].<ref name="EastinEastin2020">{{cite journal|last1=Eastin|first1=Carly|last2=Eastin|first2=Travis|title=Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China|journal=The Journal of Emergency Medicine|volume=58|issue=4|year=2020|pages=712–713|issn=07364679|doi=10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.04.006}}</ref> | ||
**Among | **Among 2,143 children with [[COVID-19|COVID]]-19 infection, 0.6%% of children had a critical presentation.<ref name="EastinEastin2020">{{cite journal|last1=Eastin|first1=Carly|last2=Eastin|first2=Travis|title=Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China|journal=The Journal of Emergency Medicine|volume=58|issue=4|year=2020|pages=712–713|issn=07364679|doi=10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.04.006}}</ref> | ||
==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
* Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by, [[SARS-CoV-2]], a novel coronavirus named for the similarity of its [[Symptom|symptoms]] to those caused by the [[severe acute respiratory syndrome]]. | ===Pathogenesis=== | ||
*Unlike SARS-CoV, transmission of COVID-19 takes place during the [[Prodrome|prodromal period]] when those infected are mildly ill and are carrying on with their usual activities. This contributes to the spread of [[infection]]. | * Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by, [[SARS-CoV-2]], a novel coronavirus named for the similarity of its [[Symptom|symptoms]] to those caused by the [[severe acute respiratory syndrome]]. | ||
*The [[virus]] [[Infection|infects]] [[epithelial cells]] of the [[Pulmonary alveoli|lung alveoli]] by receptor‐mediated [[endocytosis]] via the [[Angiotensin-converting enzyme|angiotensin‐converting enzyme]] II (ACE-II) as an entry [[Receptor (biochemistry)|receptor]]. | *Unlike SARS-CoV, transmission of COVID-19 takes place during the [[Prodrome|prodromal period]] when those infected are mildly ill and are carrying on with their usual activities. This contributes to the spread of [[infection]]. | ||
*The [[virus]] [[Infection|infects]] [[epithelial cells]] of the [[Pulmonary alveoli|lung alveoli]] by receptor‐mediated [[endocytosis]] via the [[Angiotensin-converting enzyme|angiotensin‐converting enzyme]] II (ACE-II) as an entry [[Receptor (biochemistry)|receptor]]. | |||
==== Tropism ==== | ==== Tropism ==== | ||
*The virus also relies on the ACE-II receptor not only for [[Host (biology)|host]] cell entry but also for subsequent [[viral replication]]. | *The virus also relies on the ACE-II receptor not only for [[Host (biology)|host]] cell entry but also for subsequent [[viral replication]]. | ||
*High [[Viral load|viral loads]] have been detected in the [[lower respiratory tract]], suggesting that the [[virus]] might have a higher [[Chemical affinity|affinity]] for the [[epithelium]] of the [[lower respiratory tract]] and indicating a need for repeat [[testing]] of the [[Upper respiratory tract|upper]] or [[lower respiratory tract]] samples in the setting of an initial negative result of [[Nasopharynx|nasopharyngeal]] or [[throat]] [[Swabbing|swab]] in a suspected case. | *High [[Viral load|viral loads]] have been detected in the [[lower respiratory tract]], suggesting that the [[virus]] might have a higher [[Chemical affinity|affinity]] for the [[epithelium]] of the [[lower respiratory tract]] and indicating a need for repeat [[testing]] of the [[Upper respiratory tract|upper]] or [[lower respiratory tract]] samples in the setting of an initial negative result of [[Nasopharynx|nasopharyngeal]] or [[throat]] [[Swabbing|swab]] in a suspected case. | ||
*ACE-II receptors' presence in the extrapulmonary tissues (heart, kidney, endothelium, and intestine) could also explain the multi-organ dysfunction observed in patients. | *ACE-II receptors' presence in the extrapulmonary tissues (heart, kidney, endothelium, and intestine) could also explain the multi-organ dysfunction observed in patients. | ||
*ACE-II receptors are also expressed in the oral cavity with a higher level of expression in the tongue than the buccal or gingival tissues. This indicates oral cavity as potentially high risk for [[SARS-CoV-2]] infectious susceptibility. | *ACE-II receptors are also expressed in the oral cavity with a higher level of expression in the tongue than the buccal or gingival tissues. This indicates oral cavity as potentially high risk for [[SARS-CoV-2]] infectious susceptibility. | ||
*ACE-II receptors' high expression on the [[Lumen (anatomy)|luminal]] surface of [[Intestine|intestinal]] [[epithelial cells]] suggests that the [[intestine]] might also be a major entry site for the [[virus]] and that the [[infection]] might have been initiated by consuming food from the Wuhan market (the assumed site of the outbreak). | *ACE-II receptors' high expression on the [[Lumen (anatomy)|luminal]] surface of [[Intestine|intestinal]] [[epithelial cells]] suggests that the [[intestine]] might also be a major entry site for the [[virus]] and that the [[infection]] might have been initiated by consuming food from the Wuhan market (the assumed site of the outbreak). | ||
==== Activation of Host Immune Reponses ==== | ==== Activation of Host Immune Reponses ==== | ||
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* SARS-CoV2 is known to cause a delayed-type I interferon response during the initial phases of infection. | * SARS-CoV2 is known to cause a delayed-type I interferon response during the initial phases of infection. | ||
* Infection and viral replication lead to an activation of neutrophils, macrophages, and monocytes. Th1/Th17 induced specific antibodies are produced. | * Infection and viral replication lead to an activation of neutrophils, macrophages, and monocytes. Th1/Th17 induced specific antibodies are produced. | ||
* RNA viruses such as SARS-CoV and MERS are recognized pathogen associated molecular patterns by endosomal RNA receptors, TLR3 and TLR7 and the cytosolic RNA sensor, RIG-I/MDA5. | * RNA viruses such as SARS-CoV and MERS are recognized pathogen associated molecular patterns by endosomal RNA receptors, TLR3 and TLR7 and the cytosolic RNA sensor, RIG-I/MDA5. | ||
*This leads to downstream activation of NF-KB signaling cascade and nuclear translocation of transcription factors, which in turn leads to the production of type 1 interferon pro-inflammatory cytokines. | *This leads to downstream activation of NF-KB signaling cascade and nuclear translocation of transcription factors, which in turn leads to the production of type 1 interferon pro-inflammatory cytokines. | ||
*Coronavirus Nucleocapsid Inhibits Type I Interferon Production by Interfering with TRIM25-Mediated RIG-I Ubiquitination. | *Coronavirus Nucleocapsid Inhibits Type I Interferon Production by Interfering with TRIM25-Mediated RIG-I Ubiquitination. | ||
*The main [[pathogenesis]] of COVID-19 is severe [[pneumonia]], RNAemia, combined with the [[incidence]] of ground-glass opacities, and [[Acute (medicine)|acute]] [[Heart|cardiac]] [[injury]]. | *The main [[pathogenesis]] of COVID-19 is severe [[pneumonia]], RNAemia, combined with the [[incidence]] of ground-glass opacities, and [[Acute (medicine)|acute]] [[Heart|cardiac]] [[injury]]. | ||
*As evident from the [[Autopsy|autopsies]] of those [[Infection|infected]] by the [[SARS-CoV]], the extensive [[lung]] damage may be caused by multiple factors, such as: | *As evident from the [[Autopsy|autopsies]] of those [[Infection|infected]] by the [[SARS-CoV]], the extensive [[lung]] damage may be caused by multiple factors, such as: | ||
**High initial virus titers | **High initial virus titers | ||
**Increased [[monocyte]], [[macrophage]], and [[neutrophil]] infiltration in the [[Lung|lungs]] | **Increased [[monocyte]], [[macrophage]], and [[neutrophil]] infiltration in the [[Lung|lungs]] | ||
**Elevated levels of [[serum]] [[proinflammatory]] [[Cytokine|cytokines]] and [[Chemokine|chemokines]] | **Elevated levels of [[serum]] [[proinflammatory]] [[Cytokine|cytokines]] and [[Chemokine|chemokines]] | ||
===Associated Conditions=== | |||
*The 3 most common [[comorbidities]] in children | *The 3 most common [[comorbidities]] in children . | ||
**Chronic Lung disease | **[[Chronic Lung disease]] | ||
**Cardiovascular | ** [[Cardiovascular disorders]] | ||
**Immunocompromised children | ** [[Immunocompromised]] children | ||
* [[Co-infection]] with other [[pathogens]] were reported in 27% of cases. Some common [[microorganisms]] associated with [[SARS-CoV-2]] infection in children are: | |||
[[Co-infection]] with other [[pathogens]] were reported in 27% of cases. Some common [[microorganisms]] associated with [[SARS-CoV-2]] infection in children are: | ** [[Mycoplasma pneumoniae]] | ||
*[[Mycoplasma pneumoniae]] | ** [[Influenza B virus]] | ||
*[[Influenza B virus]] | ** [[Influenza A virus]] | ||
*[[Influenza A virus]] | ** [[Respiratory syncytial virus]] (RSV) | ||
*[[Respiratory syncytial virus]] (RSV) | ** [[Cytomegalovirus]] (CMV) | ||
*[[Cytomegalovirus]] (CMV) | ** [[Enterobacter aerogenes]] | ||
*[[Enterobacter aerogenes]] | |||
==Causes== | ==Causes== | ||
* Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by [[SARS-CoV-2|severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)]].<ref name="VelavanMeyer2020">{{cite journal|last1=Velavan|first1=Thirumalaisamy P.|last2=Meyer|first2=Christian G.|title=The COVID‐19 epidemic|journal=Tropical Medicine & International Health|volume=25|issue=3|year=2020|pages=278–280|issn=1360-2276|doi=10.1111/tmi.13383}}</ref> | |||
*[[SARS-CoV-2]] belongs to the large family of viruses known as Coronaviruses (CoV). | |||
==Differentiating COVID-19 in Children from other Diseases== | ==Differentiating COVID-19 in Children from other Diseases== | ||
COVID-19 disease in children should be differentiated from the following conditions: | |||
* [[Adenovirus]] infection | |||
* [[Chlamydia]] [[pneumoniae]] | |||
* [[Human metapneumovirus]] infection | |||
* [[Influenza]] | |||
* [[Mycoplasma]] [[pneumonia]] | |||
* [[Parainfluenza virus]] infection | |||
* [[Respiratory syncytial virus]] infection | |||
* [[Rhinovirus]] infection | |||
* [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome]] (SARS-Cov-1) | |||
==Epidemiology and Demographics== | ==Epidemiology and Demographics== | ||
*Less than 2% of the confirmed positive cases of [[COVID-19]] comprise of children less than 19 years of age | *Less than 2% of the confirmed positive cases of [[COVID-19]] comprise of children less than 19 years of age<ref name="pmid32555134">{{cite journal| author=Stokes EK, Zambrano LD, Anderson KN, Marder EP, Raz KM, El Burai Felix S | display-authors=etal| title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance - United States, January 22-May 30, 2020. | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep | year= 2020 | volume= 69 | issue= 24 | pages= 759-765 | pmid=32555134 | doi=10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2 | pmc=7302472 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32555134 }} </ref> | ||
=== Incidence === | === Incidence === | ||
*Among the 1,761,503 aggregate cases reported to [[CDC]] from January 22–May 30, the [[incidence]] of confirmed cases was 403.6 cases per 100,000 population | *Among the 1,761,503 aggregate cases reported to [[CDC]] from January 22–May 30, the [[incidence]] of confirmed cases was 403.6 cases per 100,000 population <ref name="pmid32555134">{{cite journal| author=Stokes EK, Zambrano LD, Anderson KN, Marder EP, Raz KM, El Burai Felix S | display-authors=etal| title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance - United States, January 22-May 30, 2020. | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep | year= 2020 | volume= 69 | issue= 24 | pages= 759-765 | pmid=32555134 | doi=10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2 | pmc=7302472 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32555134 }} </ref>. | ||
*Lowest [[cumulative]] [[incidence]] being in the group of children less than 9 years. (51.1) per 100,000 population. | *Lowest [[cumulative]] [[incidence]] being in the group of children less than 9 years. (51.1) per 100,000 population. | ||
*To accurately calculate the [[incidence]] of [[COVID-19]] in children a study called [[Human]] [[Epidemiology]] and [[Response]] to [[SARS-CoV-2]] [[HEROS]] led by Dr. Hartet is under process and has started enrolling 6000 healthy children as well as children with [[asthma]], [[allergies]] from 2000 U.S families across 11 states. | *To accurately calculate the [[incidence]] of [[COVID-19]] in children, a study called [[Human]] [[Epidemiology]] and [[Response]] to [[SARS-CoV-2]] [[HEROS]] led by Dr. Hartet is under process and has started enrolling 6000 healthy children as well as children with [[asthma]], [[allergies]] from 2000 U.S families across 11 states. | ||
=== Prevalence === | === Prevalence === | ||
Prevalence of [[coronavirus]] in children is less compared to adults as the number of cases are less and most of the cases are with the [[mild]] presentation. | Prevalence of [[coronavirus]] in children is less compared to adults as the number of cases are less and most of the cases are with the [[mild]] presentation. | ||
=== Age === | === Age === | ||
*According to the data published by [[CDC]] for a period of January 22 to May 30 | *According to the data published by [[CDC]] for a period of January 22 to May 30 <ref name="pmid32555134">{{cite journal| author=Stokes EK, Zambrano LD, Anderson KN, Marder EP, Raz KM, El Burai Felix S | display-authors=etal| title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance - United States, January 22-May 30, 2020. | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep | year= 2020 | volume= 69 | issue= 24 | pages= 759-765 | pmid=32555134 | doi=10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2 | pmc=7302472 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32555134 }} </ref> | ||
**The cumulative [[incidence]] of [[COVID-19]] cases in children age 0-9 is 51.1 from 20,458 cases. | **The cumulative [[incidence]] of [[COVID-19]] cases in children age 0-9 is 51.1 from 20,458 cases. | ||
**The cumulative [[incidence]] of [[COVID-19]] cases in children age 10-19 is 117.3 from 49,245 cases. | **The cumulative [[incidence]] of [[COVID-19]] cases in children age 10-19 is 117.3 from 49,245 cases. | ||
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=== Race === | === Race === | ||
[[Non-Hispanic American Indian]] or Alaska Native persons have an age-adjusted hospitalization rate approximately 5 times that of non-Hispanic White persons, while non-Hispanic Black persons and Hispanic or Latino persons each have a rate approximately 4.5 times that of non-Hispanic White persons | [[Non-Hispanic American Indian]] or Alaska Native persons have an age-adjusted hospitalization rate approximately 5 times that of non-Hispanic White persons, while non-Hispanic Black persons and Hispanic or Latino persons each have a rate approximately 4.5 times that of non-Hispanic White persons | ||
=== Gender === | === Gender === | ||
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=== Region === | === Region === | ||
*[[COVID-19]] has become a [[pandemic]] with current cases around 188 countries. | *[[COVID-19]] has become a [[pandemic]] with current cases around 188 countries. | ||
*The following data is up to 29th June 2020 | *The following data is up to 29th June 2020 | ||
**The total number of [[Coronavirus]] cases worldwide is 10,055,037. | **The total number of [[Coronavirus]] cases worldwide is 10,055,037. | ||
**The total number of [[deaths]] worldwide is 499,990. | **The total number of [[deaths]] worldwide is 499,990. | ||
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==Risk Factors== | ==Risk Factors== | ||
*[[SARS-CoV 2]] spreads by [[respiratory]] [[droplets]] within 6 feet from the infected person. | *[[SARS-CoV 2]] spreads by [[respiratory]] [[droplets]] within 6 feet from the infected person. | ||
*Pregnant women with [[COVID- 19]] are at more risk of developing adverse [[obstetric]] and [[perinatal]] outcomes. | |||
*Pregnant women with [[COVID- 19]] are at more risk of developing adverse [[obstetric]] and [[perinatal]] outcomes. | |||
* Most children who were [[COVID-19]] positive were found to have acquired infection from parents and other household contacts. | * Most children who were [[COVID-19]] positive were found to have acquired infection from parents and other household contacts. | ||
* For newborn babies testing positive for the [[COVID-19]] could be infected via [[vertical]] [[transmission]], [[breastfeeding]], or contact with virus-contaminated surfaces | * For newborn babies testing positive for the [[COVID-19]] could be infected via [[vertical]] [[transmission]], [[breastfeeding]], or contact with virus-contaminated surfaces | ||
''' Breastfeeding ''' | ''' Breastfeeding ''' | ||
*According to the [[CDC]] | *According to the [[CDC]], there is no [[transmission]] of the [[SARS CoV-2]] virus from an infected mother to the [[newborn]] while [[breastfeeding]]. However limited studies are available to yet decide if there is a true transmission risk while breastfeeding. | ||
*[[CDC]] advises all mothers who are [[positive]] or suspected to be [[COVID-19]] positive to practice precaution like covering the mouth with a [[face mask]], washing hands with [[soap]] and [[water]] before and after washing hands. | *[[CDC]] advises all mothers who are [[positive]] or suspected to be [[COVID-19]] positive to practice precaution like covering the mouth with a [[face mask]], washing hands with [[soap]] and [[water]] before and after washing hands. | ||
*Bulk [[RNA]]-[[seq]] profiles from two public databases including [[The]] [[Cancer]] [[Genome]] [[Atlas]] [[TCGA]] and [[Functional]] [[Annotation]] of [[The]] [[Mammalian]] [[Genome]] [[Cap]] [[Analysis]] of [[Gene]] [[Expression]] [[FANTOM5]] [[CAGE]] dataset were collected. [[Ace]]-[[2]] receptors are used by the [[coronavirus]] to gain entry into the cells. The [[RNA]] [[Sequence]] database found ACE-2 expression in the [[breast]] [[tissue]] similar to the [[expression]] in the [[lung]] tissue.<ref name="pmid32094336">{{cite journal| author=Xu H, Zhong L, Deng J, Peng J, Dan H, Zeng X | display-authors=etal| title=High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa. | journal=Int J Oral Sci | year= 2020 | volume= 12 | issue= 1 | pages= 8 | pmid=32094336 | doi=10.1038/s41368-020-0074-x | pmc=7039956 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32094336 }} </ref> | *Bulk [[RNA]]-[[seq]] profiles from two public databases including [[The]] [[Cancer]] [[Genome]] [[Atlas]] [[TCGA]] and [[Functional]] [[Annotation]] of [[The]] [[Mammalian]] [[Genome]] [[Cap]] [[Analysis]] of [[Gene]] [[Expression]] [[FANTOM5]] [[CAGE]] dataset were collected. [[Ace]]-[[2]] receptors are used by the [[coronavirus]] to gain entry into the cells. The [[RNA]] [[Sequence]] database found ACE-2 expression in the [[breast]] [[tissue]] similar to the [[expression]] in the [[lung]] tissue.<ref name="pmid32094336">{{cite journal| author=Xu H, Zhong L, Deng J, Peng J, Dan H, Zeng X | display-authors=etal| title=High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa. | journal=Int J Oral Sci | year= 2020 | volume= 12 | issue= 1 | pages= 8 | pmid=32094336 | doi=10.1038/s41368-020-0074-x | pmc=7039956 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32094336 }} </ref> | ||
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''' Vertical transmission ''' | ''' Vertical transmission ''' | ||
*A study by Marzieh Zamaniyan et all | *A study by Marzieh Zamaniyan et all discusses about a pregnant women who developed severe [[pneumonia]] with 32 weeks of gestation delivered a healthy [[pre-term]] baby without [[COVID-19]] symptoms. | ||
**The first [[neonatal]] nasal swab, [[vaginal]] secretion and [[umbilical]] cord [[RT-PCR]] was negative. | **The first [[neonatal]] nasal swab, [[vaginal]] secretion and [[umbilical]] cord [[RT-PCR]] was negative. | ||
**However, the second neonate and amniotic sample for [[RT-PCR]] tested positive for [[COVID-19]]. This study shows more research needs to be done to identify more cases with possible intrauterine infection. | **However, the second neonate and amniotic sample for [[RT-PCR]] tested positive for [[COVID-19]]. This study shows more research needs to be done to identify more cases with possible intrauterine infection. | ||
*Another study documented a possible [[vertical]] [[transmission]] as increased levels of neonatal [[Ig M]] [[antibodies]] were found in 3 cases. | *Another study documented a possible [[vertical]] [[transmission]] as increased levels of neonatal [[Ig M]] [[antibodies]] were found in 3 cases. | ||
**[[Seropositivity]] with IgM antibodies found in neonates needs reflex testing for example - virus [[neutralization]], [[IgG]] avidity index, molecular and [[immunoblotting]]. A study by Dong E et all | **[[Seropositivity]] with IgM antibodies found in neonates needs reflex testing for example - virus [[neutralization]], [[IgG]] avidity index, molecular and [[immunoblotting]]. A study by Dong E et all discussed decreasing levels of neonatal [[IgM]] antibodies in the serum 2 weeks later. So far [[RT-PCR]] is the preferred test to docuement for possible vertical transmission. | ||
*Pregnant women with severe [[COVID-19]] [[pneumonia]] were found to have [[placental]] inflammation which increases the risk for [[transplacental]] infection and [[pre-term]] births.<ref name="pmid32529643">{{cite journal| author=Mahyuddin AP, Kanneganti A, Wong J, Dimri PS, Su LL, Biswas A | display-authors=etal| title=Mechanisms and evidence of vertical transmission of infections in pregnancy including SARS-CoV-2. | journal=Prenat Diagn | year= 2020 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=32529643 | doi=10.1002/pd.5765 | pmc=7307070 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32529643 }} </ref> | *Pregnant women with severe [[COVID-19]] [[pneumonia]] were found to have [[placental]] inflammation which increases the risk for [[transplacental]] infection and [[pre-term]] births.<ref name="pmid32529643">{{cite journal| author=Mahyuddin AP, Kanneganti A, Wong J, Dimri PS, Su LL, Biswas A | display-authors=etal| title=Mechanisms and evidence of vertical transmission of infections in pregnancy including SARS-CoV-2. | journal=Prenat Diagn | year= 2020 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=32529643 | doi=10.1002/pd.5765 | pmc=7307070 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32529643 }} </ref> | ||
*Detection of [[IgM]] and [[IL-6]] in neonates serum is used as one of the markers for possible [[transplacental]] transmission. | *Detection of [[IgM]] and [[IL-6]] in neonates serum is used as one of the markers for possible [[transplacental]] transmission. | ||
| Line 206: | Line 171: | ||
* There are no special guidelines [[Medical guideline|guidelines]] in place for the routine [[Screening (medicine)|screening]] for [[coronavirus]] disease 2019 ([[COVID-19]]) in children. | * There are no special guidelines [[Medical guideline|guidelines]] in place for the routine [[Screening (medicine)|screening]] for [[coronavirus]] disease 2019 ([[COVID-19]]) in children. | ||
* The same clinical and non-clinical features related to [[COVID-19]] being used to [[Screening (medicine)|screen]] suspected adults can be used in children and include: | * The same clinical and non-clinical features related to [[COVID-19]] being used to [[Screening (medicine)|screen]] suspected adults can be used in children and include:<ref name="VelavanMeyer2020">{{cite journal|last1=Velavan|first1=Thirumalaisamy P.|last2=Meyer|first2=Christian G.|title=The COVID‐19 epidemic|journal=Tropical Medicine & International Health|volume=25|issue=3|year=2020|pages=278–280|issn=1360-2276|doi=10.1111/tmi.13383}}</ref> | ||
**History of international travel (this requirement is actively changing and evolving with time) | **History of international travel (this requirement is actively changing and evolving with time) | ||
**History of exposure to a confirmed COVID-19 [[patient]] | **History of exposure to a confirmed COVID-19 [[patient]] | ||
| Line 229: | Line 194: | ||
* [[Acute Kidney Injury]] | * [[Acute Kidney Injury]] | ||
===A. Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)=== | ====A. Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)==== | ||
* To view detailed information on multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children, [[COVID-19-associated_multisystem_inflammatory_syndrome|click here]].<br /> | |||
=== B. Acute Heart Failure === | ==== B. Acute Heart Failure ==== | ||
*[[Acute Cardiac decompensation]] have been reported in children due to severe inflammatory state following COVID-19 infection. A case series describe 35 children in 14 centers admitted to PICU for [[cardiogenic shock]], [[left ventricular dysfunction]], and severe inflammatory state. | *[[Acute Cardiac decompensation]] have been reported in children due to severe inflammatory state following COVID-19 infection. A case series describe 35 children in 14 centers admitted to PICU for [[cardiogenic shock]], [[left ventricular dysfunction]], and severe inflammatory state. | ||
* Treatent with [[immunoglobulin]] is associated with recovery of [[left ventricular systolic function]].<ref name="BelhadjerMéot2020">{{cite journal|last1=Belhadjer|first1=Zahra|last2=Méot|first2=Mathilde|last3=Bajolle|first3=Fanny|last4=Khraiche|first4=Diala|last5=Legendre|first5=Antoine|last6=Abakka|first6=Samya|last7=Auriau|first7=Johanne|last8=Grimaud|first8=Marion|last9=Oualha|first9=Mehdi|last10=Beghetti|first10=Maurice|last11=Wacker|first11=Julie|last12=Ovaert|first12=Caroline|last13=Hascoet|first13=Sebastien|last14=Selegny|first14=Maëlle|last15=Malekzadeh-Milani|first15=Sophie|last16=Maltret|first16=Alice|last17=Bosser|first17=Gilles|last18=Giroux|first18=Nathan|last19=Bonnemains|first19=Laurent|last20=Bordet|first20=Jeanne|last21=Di Filippo|first21=Sylvie|last22=Mauran|first22=Pierre|last23=Falcon-Eicher|first23=Sylvie|last24=Thambo|first24=Jean-Benoît|last25=Lefort|first25=Bruno|last26=Moceri|first26=Pamela|last27=Houyel|first27=Lucile|last28=Renolleau|first28=Sylvain|last29=Bonnet|first29=Damien|title=Acute heart failure in multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) in the context of global SARS-CoV-2 pandemic|journal=Circulation|year=2020|issn=0009-7322|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.048360}}</ref> | * Treatent with [[immunoglobulin]] is associated with recovery of [[left ventricular systolic function]].<ref name="BelhadjerMéot2020">{{cite journal|last1=Belhadjer|first1=Zahra|last2=Méot|first2=Mathilde|last3=Bajolle|first3=Fanny|last4=Khraiche|first4=Diala|last5=Legendre|first5=Antoine|last6=Abakka|first6=Samya|last7=Auriau|first7=Johanne|last8=Grimaud|first8=Marion|last9=Oualha|first9=Mehdi|last10=Beghetti|first10=Maurice|last11=Wacker|first11=Julie|last12=Ovaert|first12=Caroline|last13=Hascoet|first13=Sebastien|last14=Selegny|first14=Maëlle|last15=Malekzadeh-Milani|first15=Sophie|last16=Maltret|first16=Alice|last17=Bosser|first17=Gilles|last18=Giroux|first18=Nathan|last19=Bonnemains|first19=Laurent|last20=Bordet|first20=Jeanne|last21=Di Filippo|first21=Sylvie|last22=Mauran|first22=Pierre|last23=Falcon-Eicher|first23=Sylvie|last24=Thambo|first24=Jean-Benoît|last25=Lefort|first25=Bruno|last26=Moceri|first26=Pamela|last27=Houyel|first27=Lucile|last28=Renolleau|first28=Sylvain|last29=Bonnet|first29=Damien|title=Acute heart failure in multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) in the context of global SARS-CoV-2 pandemic|journal=Circulation|year=2020|issn=0009-7322|doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.048360}}</ref> | ||
=== C. Negative effects of lockdown in children === | ==== C. Negative effects of lockdown in children ==== | ||
*Children less than 10 years in the school develop very important [[language]], [[social]] and [[developmental]] traits with the [[mitigation]] in place these kids are at risk to develop [[anxiety]], [[anger]], and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]]. | *Children less than 10 years in the school develop very important [[language]], [[social]] and [[developmental]] traits with the [[mitigation]] in place these kids are at risk to develop [[anxiety]], [[anger]], and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]]. | ||
*Children whose parents have either suffered [[economically]] or have [[mental]] [[health]] issues are more prone to [[physical]] and [[mental]] [[abuse]]. | *Children whose parents have either suffered [[economically]] or have [[mental]] [[health]] issues are more prone to [[physical]] and [[mental]] [[abuse]]. | ||
*With the schools using digital media to continue classes during [[mitigation]], those kids who are not able to get these devices are [[suffering]] from little to no education in this period of lockdown. | *With the schools using digital media to continue classes during [[mitigation]], those kids who are not able to get these devices are [[suffering]] from little to no education in this period of lockdown. | ||
*Children of [[healthcare]] workers are facing a great deal with change in the [[environment]] with a new baby sitter and not being able to interact and hug the parents working in the [[frontline]]. | *Children of [[healthcare]] workers are facing a great deal with change in the [[environment]] with a new baby sitter and not being able to interact and hug the parents working in the [[frontline]]. | ||
===Prognosis=== | |||
Most children recover fully from the infection. Few children, however, require hospitalization and ICU admission. | |||
*<9 years of age among 20,458 children<ref name="pmid32555134">{{cite journal| author=Stokes EK, Zambrano LD, Anderson KN, Marder EP, Raz KM, El Burai Felix S | display-authors=etal| title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance - United States, January 22-May 30, 2020. | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep | year= 2020 | volume= 69 | issue= 24 | pages= 759-765 | pmid=32555134 | doi=10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2 | pmc=7302472 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32555134 }} </ref> | |||
**Total number of all [[hospitalization]] is 4.1% | |||
**Total number of [[ICU]] admissions is 0.7% | |||
*10-19 years of age among 49,245 children<ref name="pmid32555134">{{cite journal| author=Stokes EK, Zambrano LD, Anderson KN, Marder EP, Raz KM, El Burai Felix S | display-authors=etal| title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance - United States, January 22-May 30, 2020. | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep | year= 2020 | volume= 69 | issue= 24 | pages= 759-765 | pmid=32555134 | doi=10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2 | pmc=7302472 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32555134 }} </ref> | |||
**Total number of [[all]] [[hospitalization]] is 2.5% | |||
**Total number of [[ICU]] admissions is 0.4% | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Data of children with hospitalized children and ICU admissions as reported by CDC for a period of January 22 to May 30<ref name="pmid32555134">{{cite journal| author=Stokes EK, Zambrano LD, Anderson KN, Marder EP, Raz KM, El Burai Felix S | display-authors=etal| title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance - United States, January 22-May 30, 2020. | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep | year= 2020 | volume= 69 | issue= 24 | pages= 759-765 | pmid=32555134 | doi=10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2 | pmc=7302472 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32555134 }} </ref> | |||
!Age | |||
! colspan="9" |All admissions in the hospital and ICU divided according to associated comorbidity | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" |<9 years (20458 cases) | |||
! colspan="3" |All patients (20458) | |||
! colspan="3" |Among all patients with reported underlying disease (619) | |||
! colspan="3" |Among all patients with no reported underlying disease (2277) | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" |All admissions in the hospital including ICU | |||
!ICU admissions | |||
! colspan="2" |All admissions in the hospital including ICU | |||
!ICU admissions | |||
!All admissions in the hospital including ICU | |||
! colspan="2" |ICU admissions | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="2" |848/20458 (4.1%) | |||
|141/20458 (0.7%) | |||
| colspan="2" |138/619 (22.3%) | |||
|31/619 (5%) | |||
|84/2277(3.7%) | |||
| colspan="2" |116/2277 (0.7%) | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="10" | | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" |10-19 years (49245 cases) | |||
! colspan="2" |All patients (49245) | |||
! colspan="3" |Among all patients with reported | |||
underlying disease (2076) | |||
! colspan="4" |Among all patients with no reported underlying disease (5047) | |||
|- | |||
!All admissions in the hospital including ICU | |||
!ICU admissions | |||
! colspan="2" |All admissions in the hospital including ICU (2076) | |||
!ICU admissions | |||
! colspan="3" |All admissions in the hospital including ICU (5047) | |||
!ICU admissions | |||
|- | |||
|1234/49245 (2.5%) | |||
|216/49245 (0.4%) | |||
| colspan="2" |309/2076 (14.9%) | |||
|72/2076 (3.5%) | |||
| colspan="2" |115/5047 (2.3%) | |||
| colspan="2" |17/5047 (0.3%) | |||
|} | |||
==Diagnosis== | ==Diagnosis== | ||
| Line 266: | Line 288: | ||
===History and Symptoms=== | ===History and Symptoms=== | ||
* Presentation of COVID-19 is less severe in children as compared to adults. Most of the children are asymptomatic. | * Presentation of COVID-19 is less severe in children as compared to adults. Most of the children are asymptomatic. | ||
*According to CDC, as of April 2, 2020, 1.7% confirmed cases of COVID-19 were reported in children aged <18 years age among the total number of confirmed cases of COVID-19. | *According to CDC, as of April 2, 2020, 1.7% confirmed cases of COVID-19 were reported in children aged <18 years age among the total number of confirmed cases of COVID-19. | ||
* Illness severity of [[COVID-19]] in children ranges from [[asymptomatic]] to critical. | * Illness severity of [[COVID-19]] in children ranges from [[asymptomatic]] to critical. | ||
| Line 274: | Line 296: | ||
*[[Fever]] and [[Cough]] are one of the most common symptoms reported in children. One study showed [[fever]] is prevalent in 47.5% of children and [[cough]] in 41.5% among the 1124 children with [[COVID-19]].According to the CDC, [[fever]], and [[cough]] was reported in 56% and 54% of children with COVID 19 | *[[Fever]] and [[Cough]] are one of the most common symptoms reported in children. One study showed [[fever]] is prevalent in 47.5% of children and [[cough]] in 41.5% among the 1124 children with [[COVID-19]].According to the CDC, [[fever]], and [[cough]] was reported in 56% and 54% of children with COVID 19 | ||
*[[Dyspnea]], [[nasal congestion]], [[Erythema|pharyngeal erythema]], and [[sore throat]] are also common presentations in children. | *[[Dyspnea]], [[nasal congestion]], [[Erythema|pharyngeal erythema]], and [[sore throat]] are also common presentations in children. | ||
* | *[[Gastrointestinal symptoms]]: The gastrointestinal manifestation in [[COVID-19]] positive children are [[diarrhea]], [[vomiting]], [[abdominal pain]], [[nausea]], and [[anorexia]]. Children can present with [[Gastrointestinal disorders and of COVID-19|gastrointestinal]] symptoms in the absence of [[COVID-19 Pulmonary Complications|respiratory]] symptoms. | ||
* | *[[Cutaneous Findings]]: The cutaneous findings in [[COVID-19]] positive children range from [[petechiae]] to papulovesicular [[rash]] and diffuse [[urticaria]]. These appear early in the course of [[COVID-19]] due to to viral replication or circulating [[cytokines]]. Many patients with COVID-19 present with chilblain-like lesions unrelated to cold (COVID toes). Chilblains are painful or itchy swellings of the toes and fingers, caused by small-vessel inflammation from repeated exposure to cold. A retrospective case series presented 22 children and adolescents with COVID-19 who presented with chillblains. | ||
* | *Neurological manifestation: The presentation of neurological manifestation in children is rare. However, a case report described a rare case of a 6-week old infant with COVID-19 who had 10-15 seconds episodes of upward gaze and bilateral leg stiffening. | ||
*[[Neonates]] and [[Infants]] with COVID-19 are often asymptomatic or present with fever with or without mild cough and congestion. | *[[Neonates]] and [[Infants]] with COVID-19 are often asymptomatic or present with fever with or without mild cough and congestion. | ||
===Physical Examination=== | ===Physical Examination=== | ||
The physical examination findings of COVID-19 in children are similar to those in adults. To view physical examination findings in COVID-19, [[COVID-19_physical_examination|click here]].<br /> | |||
===Laboratory Findings=== | ===Laboratory Findings=== | ||
Studies reportedly showed following lab abnormalities in pediatric patients with [[COVID-19|COVID]]-19 | Studies reportedly showed following lab abnormalities in pediatric patients with [[COVID-19|COVID]]-19 | ||
*[[Leucocytosis]] | *[[Leucocytosis]] or [[Leucopenia]] | ||
*Increased | *Increased or decreased [[neutrophils]] | ||
*[[Lymphopenia]] | *[[Lymphopenia]] or [[Lymphocytosis]] | ||
*Increased | *Increased or decreased [[platelets]] | ||
*Increased [[CRP]] levels | *Increased [[CRP]] levels | ||
*Increased [[procalcitonin]] levels | *Increased [[procalcitonin]] levels | ||
*Increased [[liver enzymes]] | *Increased [[liver enzymes]] | ||
*Increased [[Serum Creatinine]] | *Increased [[Serum Creatinine]] | ||
*Increased [[blood urea nitrogen]] | *Increased [[blood urea nitrogen]] | ||
*Increased [[lactate dehydrogenase]] (LDH) levels | *Increased [[lactate dehydrogenase]] (LDH) levels | ||
*Increased [[Creatine kinase]] levels | *Increased [[Creatine kinase]] levels | ||
*Increased [[D-dimer]] levels | *Increased [[D-dimer]] levels | ||
===Electrocardiogram=== | ===Electrocardiogram=== | ||
There are no current, evidence-based information on electrocardiographic changes in children with [[COVID-19]]. | |||
===X-ray=== | ===X-ray=== | ||
===CT scan=== | ===CT scan=== | ||
[[CT chest]] is an important diagnostic modality in pediatric patients with COVID-19. [[Chest CT scans]] has reportedly shown higher positive rates in suspected patients than [[RT-PCR]]. It has better sensitivity. [[CT chest]] and a series of [[chest X-rays]] can be used to monitor the progression of the disease. Imaging findings reported in the studies are | [[CT chest]] is an important diagnostic modality in pediatric patients with COVID-19. [[Chest CT scans]] has reportedly shown higher positive rates in suspected patients than [[RT-PCR]]. It has better sensitivity. [[CT chest]] and a series of [[chest X-rays]] can be used to monitor the progression of the disease. Imaging findings reported in the studies are<ref name="pmid32524611">{{cite journal| author=Du H, Dong X, Zhang JJ, Cao YY, Akdis M, Huang PQ | display-authors=etal| title=Clinical characteristics of 182 pediatric COVID-19 patients with different severities and allergic status. | journal=Allergy | year= 2020 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=32524611 | doi=10.1111/all.14452 | pmc=7307120 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32524611 }} </ref><ref name="pmid32492251">{{cite journal| author=de Souza TH, Nadal JA, Nogueira RJN, Pereira RM, Brandão MB| title=Clinical manifestations of children with COVID-19: A systematic review. | journal=Pediatr Pulmonol | year= 2020 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=32492251 | doi=10.1002/ppul.24885 | pmc=7300659 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32492251 }} </ref><ref name="pmid32519809">{{cite journal| author=Zhang L, Peres TG, Silva MVF, Camargos P| title=What we know so far about Coronavirus Disease 2019 in children: A meta-analysis of 551 laboratory-confirmed cases. | journal=Pediatr Pulmonol | year= 2020 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=32519809 | doi=10.1002/ppul.24869 | pmc=7300763 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32519809 }} </ref> | ||
*Local [[patchy shadows]] (18.7%) | *Local [[patchy shadows]] (18.7%) | ||
*Bilateral [[patchy shadows]] (12.3%) | *Bilateral [[patchy shadows]] (12.3%) | ||
| Line 313: | Line 338: | ||
===MRI=== | ===MRI=== | ||
* To view the MRI findings on COVID-19, [[COVID-19 MRI|click here]].<br /> | |||
===Other Imaging Findings=== | |||
* To view other imaging findings on COVID-19, [[COVID-19 other imaging findings|click here]].<br /> | |||
===Other Diagnostic Studies=== | ===Other Diagnostic Studies=== | ||
* To view other diagnostic studies for COVID-19, [[COVID-19 other diagnostic studies|click here]].<br /> | |||
==Treatment== | ==Treatment== | ||
| Line 321: | Line 352: | ||
*After confirming the diagnosis, they should be hospitalized and isolated in the wards maintained for [[pediatric]] patients with [[COVID-19]] | *After confirming the diagnosis, they should be hospitalized and isolated in the wards maintained for [[pediatric]] patients with [[COVID-19]] | ||
*Critical and severe cases require [[Intensive Care Unit]] (ICU) admission and management | *Critical and severe cases require [[Intensive Care Unit]] (ICU) admission and management | ||
As no effective treatment has been approved by the [[FDA]] yet, the main goal of managing patients with [[COVID-19]] is to treat the [[symptoms]], provide [[supportive care]], prevent and treat [[complications]], treat underlying diseases and [[secondary infections]], and provide [[organ function support]]. Following measures are reported to be crucial in the management of [[COVID-19]] | As no effective treatment has been approved by the [[FDA]] yet, the main goal of managing patients with [[COVID-19]] is to treat the [[symptoms]], provide [[supportive care]], prevent and treat [[complications]], treat underlying diseases and [[secondary infections]], and provide [[organ function support]]. Following measures are reported to be crucial in the management of [[COVID-19]] | ||
*Bed rest | *Bed rest | ||
*Adequate calorie and water intake | *Adequate calorie and water intake | ||
| Line 334: | Line 365: | ||
[[Fever]] should be treated with [[physical cooling]] and [[antipyretics]]. If the [[body temperature]] exceeds 38.5C, [[antipyretic drugs]] should be started. Drugs that can be used in children are [[acetaminophen]] 10-15 mg/kg and [[ibuprofen]] 5-10 mg/kg orally.<ref name="pmid32034659">{{cite journal| author=Shen K, Yang Y, Wang T, Zhao D, Jiang Y, Jin R | display-authors=etal| title=Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in children: experts' consensus statement. | journal=World J Pediatr | year= 2020 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=32034659 | doi=10.1007/s12519-020-00343-7 | pmc=7090771 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32034659 }} </ref> | [[Fever]] should be treated with [[physical cooling]] and [[antipyretics]]. If the [[body temperature]] exceeds 38.5C, [[antipyretic drugs]] should be started. Drugs that can be used in children are [[acetaminophen]] 10-15 mg/kg and [[ibuprofen]] 5-10 mg/kg orally.<ref name="pmid32034659">{{cite journal| author=Shen K, Yang Y, Wang T, Zhao D, Jiang Y, Jin R | display-authors=etal| title=Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in children: experts' consensus statement. | journal=World J Pediatr | year= 2020 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=32034659 | doi=10.1007/s12519-020-00343-7 | pmc=7090771 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32034659 }} </ref> | ||
===Respiratory support=== | ===Respiratory support=== | ||
*When the [[ oxygen saturations]] are low, [[oxygen therapy]] should be started using a [[nasal catheter]] or mask oxygen | *When the [[ oxygen saturations]] are low, [[oxygen therapy]] should be started using a [[nasal catheter]] or mask oxygen | ||
*Alternatively, [[heated humidified high flow nasal cannula]] (HHHFNC) can be used to improve [[oxygenation]] | *Alternatively, [[heated humidified high flow nasal cannula]] (HHHFNC) can be used to improve [[oxygenation]] | ||
*If symptoms of [[respiratory difficulty]] persist, [[continuous positive airway pressure]] (CPAP) or [[non-invasive high-frequency ventilation]] should be considered | *If symptoms of [[respiratory difficulty]] persist, [[continuous positive airway pressure]] (CPAP) or [[non-invasive high-frequency ventilation]] should be considered | ||
| Line 367: | Line 398: | ||
*More studies are required to support its efficacy and safety in children with [[COVID-19]] | *More studies are required to support its efficacy and safety in children with [[COVID-19]] | ||
===Antiviral therapy=== | ===Antiviral therapy=== | ||
Following are the [[experimental drugs]] that are being considered to treat children with [[COVID-19]] | Following are the [[experimental drugs]] that are being considered to treat children with [[COVID-19]]. Various [[clinical trials]] are being conducted on the efficacy and safety of these drugs in children with [[COVID-19]]. | ||
====Interferon-alpha==== | ====Interferon-alpha==== | ||
Inhaled [[interferon-alpha]] was the most commonly used [[antiviral]] in patients with [[COVID-19]]. Reports suggest that it helps in decreasing the [[viral load]], alleviating symptoms and shortening the disease course. | Inhaled [[interferon-alpha]] was the most commonly used [[antiviral]] in patients with [[COVID-19]]. Reports suggest that it helps in decreasing the [[viral load]], alleviating symptoms and shortening the disease course. | ||
====Remdesivir==== | ====Remdesivir==== | ||
*It is a [[nucleotide]] analogue that inhibits [[viral]] [[RNA polymerase]] | *It is a [[nucleotide]] analogue that inhibits [[viral]] [[RNA polymerase]] | ||
*It was effectively used during [[Ebola]], [[SARS]], and [[MERS]] outbreaks | *It was effectively used during [[Ebola]], [[SARS]], and [[MERS]] outbreaks | ||
*It was effective in-vitro against [[SARS-CoV-2]] | *It was effective in-vitro against [[SARS-CoV-2]] | ||
*No adverse effects were reported in a newborn treated for [[Ebola]] | *No adverse effects were reported in a newborn treated for [[Ebola]] | ||
*[[Phase III clinical trial]] is being conducted on the effectiveness of [[Remdesivir]] in treating [[COVID-19]] in adults and children above 12 years of age | *[[Phase III clinical trial]] is being conducted on the effectiveness of [[Remdesivir]] in treating [[COVID-19]] in adults and children above 12 years of age | ||
*[[FDA]] has approved the emergency use of [[Remdesivir]] in treating hospitalized children with severe disease{{cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/coronavirus-covid-19-update-fda-issues-emergency-use-authorization-potential-covid-19-treatment |title=Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update: FDA Issues Emergency Use Authorization for Potential COVID-19 Treatment | FDA |format= |work= |accessdate=}} | *[[FDA]] has approved the emergency use of [[Remdesivir]] in treating hospitalized children with severe disease{{cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/coronavirus-covid-19-update-fda-issues-emergency-use-authorization-potential-covid-19-treatment |title=Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update: FDA Issues Emergency Use Authorization for Potential COVID-19 Treatment | FDA |format= |work= |accessdate=}} | ||
====Favipiravir==== | ====Favipiravir==== | ||
*[[Favipiravir]] is an [[RNA dependent RNA polymerase inhibitor]] | *[[Favipiravir]] is an [[RNA dependent RNA polymerase inhibitor]] | ||
*In patients above 16 years, reports showed faster [[viral clearance]] and higher [[recovery rate]] with [[Favipiravir]] | *In patients above 16 years, reports showed faster [[viral clearance]] and higher [[recovery rate]] with [[Favipiravir]] | ||
*It was effective during [[Ebola]] and [[Influenza]] outbreak | *It was effective during [[Ebola]] and [[Influenza]] outbreak | ||
*The safety and efficacy of Favipiravir are still being debated | *The safety and efficacy of Favipiravir are still being debated | ||
*Due to its efficiency in treating [[SARS]], [[MERS]], [[Ebola]], and [[Influenza]],<ref name="pmid25706078">{{cite journal| author=Bouazza N, Treluyer JM, Foissac F, Mentré F, Taburet AM, Guedj J | display-authors=etal| title=Favipiravir for children with Ebola. | journal=Lancet | year= 2015 | volume= 385 | issue= 9968 | pages= 603-604 | pmid=25706078 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60232-X | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25706078 }} </ref> it is being considered as a potential treatment for severely ill children who did not respond to other treatment options<ref name="pmid32346491">{{cite journal| author=Cai Q, Yang M, Liu D, Chen J, Shu D, Xia J | display-authors=etal| title=Experimental Treatment with Favipiravir for COVID-19: An Open-Label Control Study. | journal=Engineering (Beijing) | year= 2020 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=32346491 | doi=10.1016/j.eng.2020.03.007 | pmc=7185795 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32346491 }} </ref> | *Due to its efficiency in treating [[SARS]], [[MERS]], [[Ebola]], and [[Influenza]],<ref name="pmid25706078">{{cite journal| author=Bouazza N, Treluyer JM, Foissac F, Mentré F, Taburet AM, Guedj J | display-authors=etal| title=Favipiravir for children with Ebola. | journal=Lancet | year= 2015 | volume= 385 | issue= 9968 | pages= 603-604 | pmid=25706078 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60232-X | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25706078 }} </ref> it is being considered as a potential treatment for severely ill children who did not respond to other treatment options<ref name="pmid32346491">{{cite journal| author=Cai Q, Yang M, Liu D, Chen J, Shu D, Xia J | display-authors=etal| title=Experimental Treatment with Favipiravir for COVID-19: An Open-Label Control Study. | journal=Engineering (Beijing) | year= 2020 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=32346491 | doi=10.1016/j.eng.2020.03.007 | pmc=7185795 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32346491 }} </ref> | ||
==Prevention== | ==Prevention== | ||
| Line 390: | Line 420: | ||
*The [[pandemic]] which started in [[China]] in January 2020 and now is all over the world has had a [[tremendous]] effect on the everyday life of many however children are the most affected. | *The [[pandemic]] which started in [[China]] in January 2020 and now is all over the world has had a [[tremendous]] effect on the everyday life of many however children are the most affected. | ||
*With the peak of the [[coronavirus]] cases being over in many countries like the [[USA]] and [[Europe]], there is a dilemma for the school officials about when to [[reopen]] [[schools]] for [[children]]. | *With the peak of the [[coronavirus]] cases being over in many countries like the [[USA]] and [[Europe]], there is a dilemma for the school officials about when to [[reopen]] [[schools]] for [[children]]. | ||
*According to the data collected by the [[CDC]]<ref name="pmid32555134">{{cite journal| author=Stokes EK, Zambrano LD, Anderson KN, Marder EP, Raz KM, El Burai Felix S | display-authors=etal| title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance - United States, January 22-May 30, 2020. | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep | year= 2020 | volume= 69 | issue= 24 | pages= 759-765 | pmid=32555134 | doi=10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2 | pmc=7302472 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32555134 }} </ref> and other articles | *According to the data collected by the [[CDC]]<ref name="pmid32555134">{{cite journal| author=Stokes EK, Zambrano LD, Anderson KN, Marder EP, Raz KM, El Burai Felix S | display-authors=etal| title=Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance - United States, January 22-May 30, 2020. | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep | year= 2020 | volume= 69 | issue= 24 | pages= 759-765 | pmid=32555134 | doi=10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2 | pmc=7302472 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32555134 }} </ref> and other articles children are affected less compared to adults with [[asymptomatic]] to [[mild]] [[COVID-19]] symptoms. | ||
*The challenge faced by the school committees around the world is to decide between the [[pros]] and [[cons]] of whether to reopen the school with children facing the emotional toll of the [[lockdown]] and [[quarantine]]. | *The challenge faced by the school committees around the world is to decide between the [[pros]] and [[cons]] of whether to reopen the school with children facing the emotional toll of the [[lockdown]] and [[quarantine]]. | ||
The CDC guidelines for re-opening schools are as follows | |||
*These guidelines are to be followed by schools by coordinating with the [[local]] [[health]] department to know the level of [[mitigation]] in your community as the [[coronavirus]] cases are increasing. | *These guidelines are to be followed by schools by coordinating with the [[local]] [[health]] department to know the level of [[mitigation]] in your community as the [[coronavirus]] cases are increasing. | ||
*Educate the teachers and the parents on signs of coronavirus like [[dry cough]], [[cold]], [[high fever]], and other [[flu-like]] symptoms. | *Educate the teachers and the parents on signs of coronavirus like [[dry cough]], [[cold]], [[high fever]], and other [[flu-like]] symptoms. | ||
| Line 415: | Line 445: | ||
=== Domestic violence in children === | === Domestic violence in children === | ||
*In this [[lockdown]] even though children are affected less compared to adults with [[COVID -19]] that however is not the case when it comes to [[mental]] [[health]] and [[safety]]. | *In this [[lockdown]] even though children are affected less compared to adults with [[COVID -19]] that however is not the case when it comes to [[mental]] [[health]] and [[safety]]. | ||
*A study by Silvia Bressan et all | *A study by Silvia Bressan et all reported a [[sharp]] increase in [[pediatric]] [[emergency]] visit due to [[domestic]] [[violence]] with majority of [[limb]] [[fractures]], [[facial]] [[fracture]], [[subdural]] [[hematoma]] and ingestion of [[caustic]] cleaning product. | ||
*Increased measures for children's safety and frequent [[disinfection]] should be encouraged. | *Increased measures for children's safety and frequent [[disinfection]] should be encouraged. | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
<references /> | <references /> | ||
Latest revision as of 17:20, 22 July 2020
Main article: COVID-19
For COVID-19 frequently asked inpatient questions, click here
For COVID-19 frequently asked outpatient questions, click here
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Harmeet Kharoud M.D.[2]; Asra Firdous, M.B.B.S.[3] Neepa Shah, M.B.B.S.[4]; Abdelrahman Ibrahim Abushouk, MD[5]
Synonyms and Keywords: Novel coronavirus, COVID-19, Wuhan coronavirus, coronavirus disease-19, coronavirus disease 2019, SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19, COVID-19, 2019-nCoV, Neonatal COVID-19, Pediatric COVID-19, Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children.
Overview
Cases of COVID-19 have been reported in children, yet the prevalence is lower than adults. The presentation of COVID-19 in children ranges from asymptomatic and mild cases to the multisystem inflammatory syndrome. Given that asymptomatic patients may not get tested for COVID-19 and are potential carriers for viral transmission, high clinical suspicion is required to prevent such transmissions to a population at risk of developing severe disease. A pediatrician should be cautious to exclude other causes of respiratory illnesses like seasonal influenza before any diagnostic tests. As no effective treatment has been approved by the FDA yet, the goal of managing patients with COVID-19 is to treat the symptoms, prevent and treat complications, and provide supportive care.
Historical Perspective
- The novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, is identified as the cause of an outbreak of respiratory illness first detected in Wuhan, China in late December 2019.
- On January 30, 2020,the World Health Organization(WHO) declared the outbreak as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern.
- On March 12, 2020, the World Health Organization declared the COVID-19 outbreak a pandemic.
- Shortly after its discovery, reports of COVID-19 infection in children started surfacing.
Classification
- Asymptomatic presentation
- Children present with no clinical signs or symptoms with normal chest imaging.
- Among 2,143 children with COVID-19 infection 4% of children were asymptomatic.
- According to one study, 14.2% of children were asymptomatic. Another study found 18% of asymptomatic children tested positive for COVID-19.
- Mild Disease
- Moderate
- Severe
- Children present with dyspnea, central cyanosis, hypoxia.[1]
- Among 2,143 children with COVID-19 infection 5% of children had a severe presentation.[1]
- 2.1% of children present with a severe form of COVID-19 disease.
- Children with underlying comorbidities are more susceptible to developing severe COVID-19 symptoms.
- Critical
- Children present with acute respiratory distress syndrome(ARDS), respiratory failure, shock, or multi-organ dysfunction.[1]
- Among 2,143 children with COVID-19 infection, 0.6%% of children had a critical presentation.[1]
Pathophysiology
Pathogenesis
- Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by, SARS-CoV-2, a novel coronavirus named for the similarity of its symptoms to those caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome.
- Unlike SARS-CoV, transmission of COVID-19 takes place during the prodromal period when those infected are mildly ill and are carrying on with their usual activities. This contributes to the spread of infection.
- The virus infects epithelial cells of the lung alveoli by receptor‐mediated endocytosis via the angiotensin‐converting enzyme II (ACE-II) as an entry receptor.
Tropism
- The virus also relies on the ACE-II receptor not only for host cell entry but also for subsequent viral replication.
- High viral loads have been detected in the lower respiratory tract, suggesting that the virus might have a higher affinity for the epithelium of the lower respiratory tract and indicating a need for repeat testing of the upper or lower respiratory tract samples in the setting of an initial negative result of nasopharyngeal or throat swab in a suspected case.
- ACE-II receptors' presence in the extrapulmonary tissues (heart, kidney, endothelium, and intestine) could also explain the multi-organ dysfunction observed in patients.
- ACE-II receptors are also expressed in the oral cavity with a higher level of expression in the tongue than the buccal or gingival tissues. This indicates oral cavity as potentially high risk for SARS-CoV-2 infectious susceptibility.
- ACE-II receptors' high expression on the luminal surface of intestinal epithelial cells suggests that the intestine might also be a major entry site for the virus and that the infection might have been initiated by consuming food from the Wuhan market (the assumed site of the outbreak).
Activation of Host Immune Reponses
- SARS-CoV2 is known to cause a delayed-type I interferon response during the initial phases of infection.
- Infection and viral replication lead to an activation of neutrophils, macrophages, and monocytes. Th1/Th17 induced specific antibodies are produced.
- RNA viruses such as SARS-CoV and MERS are recognized pathogen associated molecular patterns by endosomal RNA receptors, TLR3 and TLR7 and the cytosolic RNA sensor, RIG-I/MDA5.
- This leads to downstream activation of NF-KB signaling cascade and nuclear translocation of transcription factors, which in turn leads to the production of type 1 interferon pro-inflammatory cytokines.
- Coronavirus Nucleocapsid Inhibits Type I Interferon Production by Interfering with TRIM25-Mediated RIG-I Ubiquitination.
- The main pathogenesis of COVID-19 is severe pneumonia, RNAemia, combined with the incidence of ground-glass opacities, and acute cardiac injury.
- As evident from the autopsies of those infected by the SARS-CoV, the extensive lung damage may be caused by multiple factors, such as:
- High initial virus titers
- Increased monocyte, macrophage, and neutrophil infiltration in the lungs
- Elevated levels of serum proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines
Associated Conditions
- The 3 most common comorbidities in children .
- Co-infection with other pathogens were reported in 27% of cases. Some common microorganisms associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection in children are:
Causes
- Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).[2]
- SARS-CoV-2 belongs to the large family of viruses known as Coronaviruses (CoV).
Differentiating COVID-19 in Children from other Diseases
COVID-19 disease in children should be differentiated from the following conditions:
- Adenovirus infection
- Chlamydia pneumoniae
- Human metapneumovirus infection
- Influenza
- Mycoplasma pneumonia
- Parainfluenza virus infection
- Respiratory syncytial virus infection
- Rhinovirus infection
- Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-Cov-1)
Epidemiology and Demographics
- Less than 2% of the confirmed positive cases of COVID-19 comprise of children less than 19 years of age[3]
Incidence
- Among the 1,761,503 aggregate cases reported to CDC from January 22–May 30, the incidence of confirmed cases was 403.6 cases per 100,000 population [3].
- Lowest cumulative incidence being in the group of children less than 9 years. (51.1) per 100,000 population.
- To accurately calculate the incidence of COVID-19 in children, a study called Human Epidemiology and Response to SARS-CoV-2 HEROS led by Dr. Hartet is under process and has started enrolling 6000 healthy children as well as children with asthma, allergies from 2000 U.S families across 11 states.
Prevalence
Prevalence of coronavirus in children is less compared to adults as the number of cases are less and most of the cases are with the mild presentation.
Age
Race
Non-Hispanic American Indian or Alaska Native persons have an age-adjusted hospitalization rate approximately 5 times that of non-Hispanic White persons, while non-Hispanic Black persons and Hispanic or Latino persons each have a rate approximately 4.5 times that of non-Hispanic White persons
Gender
- According to the data published by CDC for a period of January 22 to May 30[3]
- The cumulative incidence of COVID-19 cases:
- Boys age 0-9 years is 52.5 (1.7%) out of 10,743
- Boys age 10-19 years is 113.4 (3.8%) out of 24,302
- Girls age 0-9 years is 49.7 (1.4%) out of 9,715
- Girls age 10-19 years is 121 (3.7%)out of 24,943
- The cumulative incidence of COVID-19 cases:
Region
- COVID-19 has become a pandemic with current cases around 188 countries.
- The following data is up to 29th June 2020
- The total number of COVID-19 cases in the U.S is 2,534,981.
Risk Factors
- SARS-CoV 2 spreads by respiratory droplets within 6 feet from the infected person.
- Pregnant women with COVID- 19 are at more risk of developing adverse obstetric and perinatal outcomes.
- Most children who were COVID-19 positive were found to have acquired infection from parents and other household contacts.
- For newborn babies testing positive for the COVID-19 could be infected via vertical transmission, breastfeeding, or contact with virus-contaminated surfaces
Breastfeeding
- According to the CDC, there is no transmission of the SARS CoV-2 virus from an infected mother to the newborn while breastfeeding. However limited studies are available to yet decide if there is a true transmission risk while breastfeeding.
- CDC advises all mothers who are positive or suspected to be COVID-19 positive to practice precaution like covering the mouth with a face mask, washing hands with soap and water before and after washing hands.
- Bulk RNA-seq profiles from two public databases including The Cancer Genome Atlas TCGA and Functional Annotation of The Mammalian Genome Cap Analysis of Gene Expression FANTOM5 CAGE dataset were collected. Ace-2 receptors are used by the coronavirus to gain entry into the cells. The RNA Sequence database found ACE-2 expression in the breast tissue similar to the expression in the lung tissue.[4]
- However, the current data suggest there is one isolated case reported where the breast milk sample was found to be positive for COVID-19 sample on Day 1 and subsequently negative in the day 3 sample. More research needs to be done to conclude if there is any transmission via breastfeeding[5].
Vertical transmission
- A study by Marzieh Zamaniyan et all discusses about a pregnant women who developed severe pneumonia with 32 weeks of gestation delivered a healthy pre-term baby without COVID-19 symptoms.
- Another study documented a possible vertical transmission as increased levels of neonatal Ig M antibodies were found in 3 cases.
- Seropositivity with IgM antibodies found in neonates needs reflex testing for example - virus neutralization, IgG avidity index, molecular and immunoblotting. A study by Dong E et all discussed decreasing levels of neonatal IgM antibodies in the serum 2 weeks later. So far RT-PCR is the preferred test to docuement for possible vertical transmission.
- Pregnant women with severe COVID-19 pneumonia were found to have placental inflammation which increases the risk for transplacental infection and pre-term births.[5]
- Detection of IgM and IL-6 in neonates serum is used as one of the markers for possible transplacental transmission.
- Some studies which detected the virus hours to days after birth in the nasopharyngeal samples and hence those newborns could have been exposed to the virus after birth via the nosocomial infection.
Screening
- There are no special guidelines guidelines in place for the routine screening for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in children.
- The same clinical and non-clinical features related to COVID-19 being used to screen suspected adults can be used in children and include:[2]
Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis
Complications
- Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MISC-C)
- Exacerbation of the underlying conditions
- Acute Respiratory Distress syndrome
- Sepsis
- Septic shock
- Secondary Bacterial infections.
- Acute Heart Failure
- Myocarditis
- Acute Kidney Injury
A. Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C)
- To view detailed information on multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children, click here.
B. Acute Heart Failure
- Acute Cardiac decompensation have been reported in children due to severe inflammatory state following COVID-19 infection. A case series describe 35 children in 14 centers admitted to PICU for cardiogenic shock, left ventricular dysfunction, and severe inflammatory state.
- Treatent with immunoglobulin is associated with recovery of left ventricular systolic function.[6]
C. Negative effects of lockdown in children
- Children less than 10 years in the school develop very important language, social and developmental traits with the mitigation in place these kids are at risk to develop anxiety, anger, and post-traumatic stress disorder.
- Children whose parents have either suffered economically or have mental health issues are more prone to physical and mental abuse.
- With the schools using digital media to continue classes during mitigation, those kids who are not able to get these devices are suffering from little to no education in this period of lockdown.
- Children of healthcare workers are facing a great deal with change in the environment with a new baby sitter and not being able to interact and hug the parents working in the frontline.
Prognosis
Most children recover fully from the infection. Few children, however, require hospitalization and ICU admission.
- <9 years of age among 20,458 children[3]
- Total number of all hospitalization is 4.1%
- Total number of ICU admissions is 0.7%
- 10-19 years of age among 49,245 children[3]
- Total number of all hospitalization is 2.5%
- Total number of ICU admissions is 0.4%
| Age | All admissions in the hospital and ICU divided according to associated comorbidity | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| <9 years (20458 cases) | All patients (20458) | Among all patients with reported underlying disease (619) | Among all patients with no reported underlying disease (2277) | ||||||
| All admissions in the hospital including ICU | ICU admissions | All admissions in the hospital including ICU | ICU admissions | All admissions in the hospital including ICU | ICU admissions | ||||
| 848/20458 (4.1%) | 141/20458 (0.7%) | 138/619 (22.3%) | 31/619 (5%) | 84/2277(3.7%) | 116/2277 (0.7%) | ||||
| 10-19 years (49245 cases) | All patients (49245) | Among all patients with reported
underlying disease (2076) |
Among all patients with no reported underlying disease (5047) | ||||||
| All admissions in the hospital including ICU | ICU admissions | All admissions in the hospital including ICU (2076) | ICU admissions | All admissions in the hospital including ICU (5047) | ICU admissions | ||||
| 1234/49245 (2.5%) | 216/49245 (0.4%) | 309/2076 (14.9%) | 72/2076 (3.5%) | 115/5047 (2.3%) | 17/5047 (0.3%) | ||||
Diagnosis
Diagnostic Study of Choice
In case of clinical suspicion, the best diagnostic test to diagnose COVID-19 infection in children is Reverse-Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved real-time Reverse-Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) as the preferred test for diagnosing COVID-19 in children
- RT-PCR has high specificity and sensitivity of 66-80% in diagnosing SARS-CoV-2 infection
- The test is negative during the first 7-10 days of the infection and remains positive for several weeks after the infection subsides
- Swab contamination may produce false-positive results
- High levels of SARS-CoV-2 RNA were obtained in the samples from the upper respiratory tract in both symptomatic and asymptomatic patients
- Nasopharyngeal swabs and oropharyngeal swabs or throat swab are the preferred samples for the diagnostic test
- Nasopharyngeal swab is collected in children less than 2 years of age
- A throat swab is preferred for children above 2 years
- Due to the difficulty in obtaining samples and poor cooperation of children, it is advised to use saliva samples to diagnose SARS-CoV-2 infection
- Saliva samples reportedly showed higher positive rates than Nasopharyngeal swabs in adults. It is quick and non-invasive that decreases the risk of exposure and contamination
- In patients with a high risk of exposure, one negative test result does not exclude the infection. The test should be repeated or lower respiratory tract samples like Bronchoscopic Alveolar Lavage (BAL) should be used as a specimen in such patients
- Due to the increased risk of exposure for both patient and health care worker, bronchoscopy is not recommended to diagnose SARS-CoV-2 infection
- In patients on mechanical ventilation, bronchoscopic alveolar lavage fluid or endotracheal aspirates can be used
- The virus RNA was also detected in blood and stools specimen
- Real-time Fluorescent RT-PCR is used in children with atypical symptoms
- Alternatively, some researchers suggest using metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) of viral RNA for the diagnosis.
History and Symptoms
- Presentation of COVID-19 is less severe in children as compared to adults. Most of the children are asymptomatic.
- According to CDC, as of April 2, 2020, 1.7% confirmed cases of COVID-19 were reported in children aged <18 years age among the total number of confirmed cases of COVID-19.
- Illness severity of COVID-19 in children ranges from asymptomatic to critical.
- The incubation period of SARS-CoV-2 varies from 2 to 14 days with most patients developing symptoms 3 to 7 days after exposure.[7]
The common symptoms of COVID-19 infection in children are:
- Fever and Cough are one of the most common symptoms reported in children. One study showed fever is prevalent in 47.5% of children and cough in 41.5% among the 1124 children with COVID-19.According to the CDC, fever, and cough was reported in 56% and 54% of children with COVID 19
- Dyspnea, nasal congestion, pharyngeal erythema, and sore throat are also common presentations in children.
- Gastrointestinal symptoms: The gastrointestinal manifestation in COVID-19 positive children are diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain, nausea, and anorexia. Children can present with gastrointestinal symptoms in the absence of respiratory symptoms.
- Cutaneous Findings: The cutaneous findings in COVID-19 positive children range from petechiae to papulovesicular rash and diffuse urticaria. These appear early in the course of COVID-19 due to to viral replication or circulating cytokines. Many patients with COVID-19 present with chilblain-like lesions unrelated to cold (COVID toes). Chilblains are painful or itchy swellings of the toes and fingers, caused by small-vessel inflammation from repeated exposure to cold. A retrospective case series presented 22 children and adolescents with COVID-19 who presented with chillblains.
- Neurological manifestation: The presentation of neurological manifestation in children is rare. However, a case report described a rare case of a 6-week old infant with COVID-19 who had 10-15 seconds episodes of upward gaze and bilateral leg stiffening.
- Neonates and Infants with COVID-19 are often asymptomatic or present with fever with or without mild cough and congestion.
Physical Examination
The physical examination findings of COVID-19 in children are similar to those in adults. To view physical examination findings in COVID-19, click here.
Laboratory Findings
Studies reportedly showed following lab abnormalities in pediatric patients with COVID-19
- Leucocytosis or Leucopenia
- Increased or decreased neutrophils
- Lymphopenia or Lymphocytosis
- Increased or decreased platelets
- Increased CRP levels
- Increased procalcitonin levels
- Increased liver enzymes
- Increased Serum Creatinine
- Increased blood urea nitrogen
- Increased lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels
- Increased Creatine kinase levels
- Increased D-dimer levels
Electrocardiogram
There are no current, evidence-based information on electrocardiographic changes in children with COVID-19.
X-ray
CT scan
CT chest is an important diagnostic modality in pediatric patients with COVID-19. Chest CT scans has reportedly shown higher positive rates in suspected patients than RT-PCR. It has better sensitivity. CT chest and a series of chest X-rays can be used to monitor the progression of the disease. Imaging findings reported in the studies are[8][9][10]
- Local patchy shadows (18.7%)
- Bilateral patchy shadows (12.3%)
- Consolidation (33%)
- Ground glass opacities (28%)
- Interstitial abnormalities (1.2%)
- Pleural effusion was reported in a 2-month old child who had a co-infection with RSV along with SARS-CoV-2
Children are at increased risk of radiation and its effects, so CT scans and X-rays should be judiciously used in them. It is advised to perform Pulmonary Ultrasonography (USG) in newborns. It has better sensitivity and is safer than CT scans and Chest X-rays.
MRI
- To view the MRI findings on COVID-19, click here.
Other Imaging Findings
- To view other imaging findings on COVID-19, click here.
Other Diagnostic Studies
- To view other diagnostic studies for COVID-19, click here.
Treatment
Management of COVID-19 in pediatric patients depends on the severity of symptoms.
- Hospital admission and level of care depend on the clinical presentation, supportive care requirement, underlying comorbidities, and availability of health care facilities at home
- Suspected patients must be isolated at a hospital or home until the diagnosis is excluded
- After confirming the diagnosis, they should be hospitalized and isolated in the wards maintained for pediatric patients with COVID-19
- Critical and severe cases require Intensive Care Unit (ICU) admission and management
As no effective treatment has been approved by the FDA yet, the main goal of managing patients with COVID-19 is to treat the symptoms, provide supportive care, prevent and treat complications, treat underlying diseases and secondary infections, and provide organ function support. Following measures are reported to be crucial in the management of COVID-19
- Bed rest
- Adequate calorie and water intake
- Maintain electrolyte balance and homeostasis
- Maintain airways patency
- Monitor vital signs and SpO2
- Symptomatic treatment and Supportive care
- Routine blood tests to monitor organ functions
- Repeat chest imaging to monitor the progression of the disease
Symptomatic treatment and Supportive Care
Fever should be treated with physical cooling and antipyretics. If the body temperature exceeds 38.5C, antipyretic drugs should be started. Drugs that can be used in children are acetaminophen 10-15 mg/kg and ibuprofen 5-10 mg/kg orally.[11]
Respiratory support
- When the oxygen saturations are low, oxygen therapy should be started using a nasal catheter or mask oxygen
- Alternatively, heated humidified high flow nasal cannula (HHHFNC) can be used to improve oxygenation
- If symptoms of respiratory difficulty persist, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) or non-invasive high-frequency ventilation should be considered
- Patients should be started on mechanical ventilation immediately when no improvement occurs or respiratory health is rapidly deteriorating.
Mechanical Ventilation
Low tidal volume mechanical ventilation is preferred to prevent ventilation related lung injury. Criteria for starting mechanical ventilation[11]
- No improvement observed with non-invasive ventilation
OR
- Intolerant to non-invasive ventilation
OR
- Increased airway secretions, severe cough, and hemodynamic instability
Antibiotics
Antibiotics and antifungals help in reducing symptoms and preventing complications of secondary infections[10]
Corticosteroids
Steroids are used in severe cases and to prevent complications[10]. Any of the following criteria must be met before starting corticosteroid therapy in patients with COVID-19[11]. Intravenous methylprednisolone 1-2mg/kg/day used for 3-5 days. Long-term usage is highly discouraged.
- Rapid progression of the disease as documented from chest imaging and development of ARDS
OR
- Patients who develop encephalitis or encephalopathy, hemophagocytic syndrome, and other serious complications
OR
- Patient develops septic shock
OR
- Patient presents with wheezing
Anticoagulation therapy
- Patients with raised D-dimer levels are at increased risk of thrombus formation
- Anticoagulant or antiplatelet therapy can be given to prevent this complication
- Low molecular weight Heparin was reportedly used during the early stages.
Convalescent plasma therapy
Evidence suggests the use of plasma therapy in children with exacerbations and severe and critical disease.
Immunoglobulin therapy
- Intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) can be used in severe cases[10]
- Dose of 1g/kg/day for 2days or 400mg/kg/day for 8 days is recommended for children
- More studies are required to support its efficacy and safety in children with COVID-19
Antiviral therapy
Following are the experimental drugs that are being considered to treat children with COVID-19. Various clinical trials are being conducted on the efficacy and safety of these drugs in children with COVID-19.
Interferon-alpha
Inhaled interferon-alpha was the most commonly used antiviral in patients with COVID-19. Reports suggest that it helps in decreasing the viral load, alleviating symptoms and shortening the disease course.
Remdesivir
- It is a nucleotide analogue that inhibits viral RNA polymerase
- It was effectively used during Ebola, SARS, and MERS outbreaks
- It was effective in-vitro against SARS-CoV-2
- No adverse effects were reported in a newborn treated for Ebola
- Phase III clinical trial is being conducted on the effectiveness of Remdesivir in treating COVID-19 in adults and children above 12 years of age
- FDA has approved the emergency use of Remdesivir in treating hospitalized children with severe disease"Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update: FDA Issues Emergency Use Authorization for Potential COVID-19 Treatment | FDA".
Favipiravir
- Favipiravir is an RNA dependent RNA polymerase inhibitor
- In patients above 16 years, reports showed faster viral clearance and higher recovery rate with Favipiravir
- It was effective during Ebola and Influenza outbreak
- The safety and efficacy of Favipiravir are still being debated
- Due to its efficiency in treating SARS, MERS, Ebola, and Influenza,[12] it is being considered as a potential treatment for severely ill children who did not respond to other treatment options[13]
Prevention
Re-opening of schools
- The pandemic which started in China in January 2020 and now is all over the world has had a tremendous effect on the everyday life of many however children are the most affected.
- With the peak of the coronavirus cases being over in many countries like the USA and Europe, there is a dilemma for the school officials about when to reopen schools for children.
- According to the data collected by the CDC[3] and other articles children are affected less compared to adults with asymptomatic to mild COVID-19 symptoms.
- The challenge faced by the school committees around the world is to decide between the pros and cons of whether to reopen the school with children facing the emotional toll of the lockdown and quarantine.
The CDC guidelines for re-opening schools are as follows
- These guidelines are to be followed by schools by coordinating with the local health department to know the level of mitigation in your community as the coronavirus cases are increasing.
- Educate the teachers and the parents on signs of coronavirus like dry cough, cold, high fever, and other flu-like symptoms.
- If the child has the above-mentioned symptoms or is in contact with an adult at home having these symptoms or the adult at home has tested positive the child should stay home.
- Teachers, children, and other staff members with the immunocompromised state should be given the option to work from home virtually as they are in the high-risk group.
- Hand hygiene- Soap and water should be provided by the school for students to wash hands frequently for 20 seconds
- If soap and water are not available provide hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol.
- Use a tissue to cover cough/sneeze and wash hands after discarding the tissue safely.
- Cloth face mask is advised for all the school staff and the children except kids younger than 2 years of age or kids with a breathing problem who needs assistance in removing the face mask.
- Signs about COVID 19 should be placed in places frequently visited like the school entrance, cafeteria, and the bathroom.
- Avoid sharing objects and if possible give kids individual supplies.
- Ensure proper ventilation systems are in place, open windows when it's safe and possible.
- Identify small groups of children and try to keep them together with the same teacher.
- Food brought from home is advisable. If not then food should be distributed in the classroom, not the cafeteria.
- Advise students and teachers to limit their exposure to the news stories. It can be overwhelming for the students.
- Encourage the students to talk to anyone they trust or to reach out to teachers to talk when overwhelmed.
- If a child tests positive or is suspected to have COVID-19 the school should arrange special transport for the student separately.
- Inform the local health care department and close contacts if the student tests positive.
- Proper contact tracing, isolation, disinfecting the common places frequently used by the students should be made a priority.
Domestic violence in children
- In this lockdown even though children are affected less compared to adults with COVID -19 that however is not the case when it comes to mental health and safety.
- A study by Silvia Bressan et all reported a sharp increase in pediatric emergency visit due to domestic violence with majority of limb fractures, facial fracture, subdural hematoma and ingestion of caustic cleaning product.
- Increased measures for children's safety and frequent disinfection should be encouraged.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Eastin, Carly; Eastin, Travis (2020). "Epidemiological characteristics of 2143 pediatric patients with 2019 coronavirus disease in China". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 58 (4): 712–713. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.04.006. ISSN 0736-4679.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Velavan, Thirumalaisamy P.; Meyer, Christian G. (2020). "The COVID‐19 epidemic". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 25 (3): 278–280. doi:10.1111/tmi.13383. ISSN 1360-2276.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Stokes EK, Zambrano LD, Anderson KN, Marder EP, Raz KM, El Burai Felix S; et al. (2020). "Coronavirus Disease 2019 Case Surveillance - United States, January 22-May 30, 2020". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 69 (24): 759–765. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6924e2. PMC 7302472 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32555134 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Xu H, Zhong L, Deng J, Peng J, Dan H, Zeng X; et al. (2020). "High expression of ACE2 receptor of 2019-nCoV on the epithelial cells of oral mucosa". Int J Oral Sci. 12 (1): 8. doi:10.1038/s41368-020-0074-x. PMC 7039956 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32094336 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ 5.0 5.1 Mahyuddin AP, Kanneganti A, Wong J, Dimri PS, Su LL, Biswas A; et al. (2020). "Mechanisms and evidence of vertical transmission of infections in pregnancy including SARS-CoV-2". Prenat Diagn. doi:10.1002/pd.5765. PMC 7307070 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32529643 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Belhadjer, Zahra; Méot, Mathilde; Bajolle, Fanny; Khraiche, Diala; Legendre, Antoine; Abakka, Samya; Auriau, Johanne; Grimaud, Marion; Oualha, Mehdi; Beghetti, Maurice; Wacker, Julie; Ovaert, Caroline; Hascoet, Sebastien; Selegny, Maëlle; Malekzadeh-Milani, Sophie; Maltret, Alice; Bosser, Gilles; Giroux, Nathan; Bonnemains, Laurent; Bordet, Jeanne; Di Filippo, Sylvie; Mauran, Pierre; Falcon-Eicher, Sylvie; Thambo, Jean-Benoît; Lefort, Bruno; Moceri, Pamela; Houyel, Lucile; Renolleau, Sylvain; Bonnet, Damien (2020). "Acute heart failure in multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) in the context of global SARS-CoV-2 pandemic". Circulation. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.048360. ISSN 0009-7322.
- ↑ Chen ZM, Fu JF, Shu Q, Chen YH, Hua CZ, Li FB; et al. (2020). "Diagnosis and treatment recommendations for pediatric respiratory infection caused by the 2019 novel coronavirus". World J Pediatr. 16 (3): 240–246. doi:10.1007/s12519-020-00345-5. PMC 7091166 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32026148 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Du H, Dong X, Zhang JJ, Cao YY, Akdis M, Huang PQ; et al. (2020). "Clinical characteristics of 182 pediatric COVID-19 patients with different severities and allergic status". Allergy. doi:10.1111/all.14452. PMC 7307120 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32524611 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ de Souza TH, Nadal JA, Nogueira RJN, Pereira RM, Brandão MB (2020). "Clinical manifestations of children with COVID-19: A systematic review". Pediatr Pulmonol. doi:10.1002/ppul.24885. PMC 7300659 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32492251 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Zhang L, Peres TG, Silva MVF, Camargos P (2020). "What we know so far about Coronavirus Disease 2019 in children: A meta-analysis of 551 laboratory-confirmed cases". Pediatr Pulmonol. doi:10.1002/ppul.24869. PMC 7300763 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32519809 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Shen K, Yang Y, Wang T, Zhao D, Jiang Y, Jin R; et al. (2020). "Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in children: experts' consensus statement". World J Pediatr. doi:10.1007/s12519-020-00343-7. PMC 7090771 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32034659 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Bouazza N, Treluyer JM, Foissac F, Mentré F, Taburet AM, Guedj J; et al. (2015). "Favipiravir for children with Ebola". Lancet. 385 (9968): 603–604. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60232-X. PMID 25706078.
- ↑ Cai Q, Yang M, Liu D, Chen J, Shu D, Xia J; et al. (2020). "Experimental Treatment with Favipiravir for COVID-19: An Open-Label Control Study". Engineering (Beijing). doi:10.1016/j.eng.2020.03.007. PMC 7185795 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32346491 Check|pmid=value (help).