Cough in children

Jump to navigation Jump to search

WikiDoc Resources for Cough in children

Articles

Most recent articles on Cough in children

Most cited articles on Cough in children

Review articles on Cough in children

Articles on Cough in children in N Eng J Med, Lancet, BMJ

Media

Powerpoint slides on Cough in children

Images of Cough in children

Photos of Cough in children

Podcasts & MP3s on Cough in children

Videos on Cough in children

Evidence Based Medicine

Cochrane Collaboration on Cough in children

Bandolier on Cough in children

TRIP on Cough in children

Clinical Trials

Ongoing Trials on Cough in children at Clinical Trials.gov

Trial results on Cough in children

Clinical Trials on Cough in children at Google

Guidelines / Policies / Govt

US National Guidelines Clearinghouse on Cough in children

NICE Guidance on Cough in children

NHS PRODIGY Guidance

FDA on Cough in children

CDC on Cough in children

Books

Books on Cough in children

News

Cough in children in the news

Be alerted to news on Cough in children

News trends on Cough in children

Commentary

Blogs on Cough in children

Definitions

Definitions of Cough in children

Patient Resources / Community

Patient resources on Cough in children

Discussion groups on Cough in children

Patient Handouts on Cough in children

Directions to Hospitals Treating Cough in children

Risk calculators and risk factors for Cough in children

Healthcare Provider Resources

Symptoms of Cough in children

Causes & Risk Factors for Cough in children

Diagnostic studies for Cough in children

Treatment of Cough in children

Continuing Medical Education (CME)

CME Programs on Cough in children

International

Cough in children en Espanol

Cough in children en Francais

Business

Cough in children in the Marketplace

Patents on Cough in children

Experimental / Informatics

List of terms related to Cough in children

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief:

Synonyms and keywords: Cough in kids

Overview

Historical Perspective

  • The word Cough was first derived from the middle English Coughen or old English Cohhian which was primarily composed of the middle Dutch Kochen and the high middle German Kuchen, in early 14th century.

Classification

  • Cough in children may be classified or defined according to the duration of presenting complaints, quality and sound, causes of cough into several groups.[1]:
  • 1 Duration of Presenting complaints: According to the duration of cough, it can be sub classified into three categories.
    • Acute: Cough persists for less than three weeks.
    • Subacute: Cough persists for three to eight weeks.
    • Chronic: Cough persists for more than eight weeks.
  • 2. Quality and sounds: According to the quality and sound cough can be sub classified in to following categories-
    • Dry or Hacking or Nonproductive.
    • Wet or productive cough.
    • Staccato or short repetitive cough.
    • Whooping or paroxysmal violent or spasmodic cough.
    • Barking cough: Brassy barking or Honking barking.
    • Phlegmy cough.
    • Burning cough.
  • 3. Causes of Cough: Based on causes cough is subdivided into following three sub groups-
    • Normal or expected cough.
    • Specific cough.
    • Non-specific cough.
  • 4. Anatomic classification on causes of cough: Cough can be produced from different anatomical locations. for example-
    • Nose and Paranasal sinuses.
    • Pharynx.
    • Larynx.
    • Trachea and Bronchi.
    • Pulmonary parenchyma.
    • Pleura.
    • Mediastinum.
    • Heart and blood vessels.
    • External ear and Tympanic membrane.
    • Esophagus.
  • 5. Grades of cough: Cough can be graded into four main sub categories-[2]
    • Eutussia or Normal.
    • Hypertussia or Sensitized.
    • Hypotussia or Desensitized.
    • Dystussia or Pathological.
    • Atussia or Absent.

Cough in children can also be classified under infectious (Bacterial, Viral, fungal, Parasitic) or non-infectous categories broadly.

Pathophysiology

  • Cough is natural innate primitive reflex that helps in mucocilliary clearance of foreign particles and secretions from respiratory tracts. It is also a defensive mechanism protecting respiratory airways from aspiration of pathogens, particulates and secretions. A complex arc comprised of neuro-respiratory pathways helps in initiating the cough reflex.[3]
 
 
 
Mechanical and chemical stimulation of cough receptors (Rapidly adapting receptors, slowly adapting receptors or C-fibers) in Respiratory airways
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Afferent pathways: Sensory nerve fibers via Vagus Nerve from ciliated columnar epithelium of upper airways, cardiac and esophageal branches from diaphragm send impulse to central cough center
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Central cough center in upper brain stem medulla and pons send impulse of sequence of phases (Inspiratory, Compressive, Expiratory) for constituting cough
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Efferent pathways: The nucleus retroambigualis sends impulse via phrenic and spinal motor nerves to diaphragm and abdominal and respiratory muscles, the nucleus ambiguous sends impulse to larynx by laryngeal branches of vagus nerve
 
 
 
  • On gross pathology, Bloody, Serous , Mucoid, Rusty, Pink frothy, and Purulent are characteristic findings of sputum produced by coughing.
  • On microscopic histopathological analysis, Pathogens, RBCs, Leukocytes, epithelial celss are characteristic findings of Sputum produced by coughing.

Causes

Causes of cough in children according to duration[4][5][6]:

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Cough
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Acute(<3 weeks) •Common Cold
Allergic Rhinitis
Bronchitis
Bronchiolitis
Asthma
Whooping Cough
Influenza
Croup or Tracheolaryngobronchitis
Pneumonia
Irritation by smoking
Foreign Body
GERD
 
 
 
 
Subacute(3-8 weeks) •Whooping Cough or Pertussis
•Post infectious Cough
Bacterial Sinusitis
Asthma
 
 
 
 
Chronic(>8 weeks) •Upper Airway Cough Syndrome
Asthma
Bronchiectasis in Cystic fibrosis and Kartagener Syndrome
Chronic sinusitis
Malacia
•Foreign Body
Nonasthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis
•Respiratory environmental toxins

According to quality and sound of cough in children, the causes can be classified according to following chart.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Dry or Hacking or Nonproductive
 
Sinusitis, Tonsillitis, Pharyngitis, Allergic Rhinitis, GERD, Asthma, Environmental exposure to irritants(pollen, dust, mites, smokes), Post infectious cough.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Wet or productive cough
 
Cystic fibrosis, Bronchiectasis, Bronchiolitis, Tuberculosis, Rhinitis, Postnasal drip, Pneumonia, Emphysema, Acute bronchitis, Asthma
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Causes of Cough based on quality and sound
 
 
 
 
Staccato or short repetitive cough
 
Chlamydia pneumonia
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Whooping or paroxysmal violent or spasmodic cough
 
Pertussis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Barking cough
 
Brassy barking: Croup, Tracheomalacia, Laryngitis, Tracheitis
Honking barking: Psychogenic cough , Tourette syndrome (habit cough)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Phlegmy cough
 
Viral infection
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Burning cough
 
Bacterial Bronchitis, Irritants
 
 
 
 
 
 

Based on anatomical location the causes of cough in children can be demonstrated into following chart-

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Nose and Paranasal sinuses
 
Rhinitis, Foreign Body, Sinusitis, Nasal polyp, ppHypertrophied inferior turbinate]]
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Pharynx
 
Pharyngitis, Foreign Body, Irritants
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Larynx
 
Laryngitis, Epiglottis, Tonsillitis, Laryngomalacia, Subglottic stenosis, Foreign body
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Trachea and Bronchi
 
Tracheitis, Croup, Bronchiolitis, Bronchiectasis, Bronchitis, Cystic fibrosis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Causes based on anatomic location
 
 
 
 
Pulmonary parenchyma
 
Pneumonia, Tuberculosis, Environmental toxin, Respiratory distress syndrome, Aspiration syndrome, Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis, Connective tissue disease, Alveolar capillary dysplasia, Neuroendocrine cell hyperplasia of infancy, Medications, Mutations causing surfactant dysfunction, Emphysema
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Pleura
 
Pleurisy, Pneumothorax, Hemothorax, Parapneumonic effusions, Pleural tuberculosis, Congenital hydrothorax and chylothorax
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Mediastinum
 
Mediastinitis, Mediastinal Tuberculosis, Thymoma, Thymic hyperplasia, Thymic carcinoma, Neuroblastoma, Ganglioneuroma, Non Hodgkin lymphoma, Sarcoma, Mature teratoma, Endodermal sinus tumor, Hemangioma, Wilms tumor, Lymphangioma
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Heart and blood vessels
 
Congenital heart disease, Valvular heart disease, Heart failure, Myocarditis, Cardiomyopathies, Wegener granulomatosis, Vasculitis, Arteriovenous malformation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
External ear and Tympanic membrane
 
Otitis media and externa, Impaction of foreign body, wax, Myringitis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Esophagus
 
GERD, Tracheoesophageal Fistula
 
 
 
 
 
 

Differentiating Cough from other Diseases

For the differential diagnosis of productive cough, click here.
For the differential diagnosis of acute cough, click here.
For the differential diagnosis of chronic cough, click here.
For the differential diagnosis of cough and hemoptysis, click here.
For the differential diagnosis of cough and weight loss, click here.
For the differential diagnosis of cough and fever, click here.
For the differential diagnosis of cough and wheeze, click here.
For the differential diagnosis of cough, fever, and hemoptysis, click here.
For the differential diagnosis of cough, fever, and weight loss, click here.
For the differential diagnosis of cough, hemoptysis, and weight loss, click here.

Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight lost Fever Dyspnea Ascultation Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Respiratory Upper airway diseases Epiglottitis[7][8] Abrupt or acute
  • 12−24 hours
+ +
  • Elevated white blood count in CBC
  • Blood culture may show bacterial growth
  • Epiglottal culture in intubated patients may show bacterial growth
  • Normal function
Croup[9] Acute
  • 3−5 days
+ + +
  • Clinical diagnosis.
  • Laboratory findings and imaging are not necessary for diagnosis
Pertussis[10][11] Acute
  • Two weeks
+ Whooping sound + + +
  • Clear chest
  • Normal function
  • Culture
Laryngopharyngeal reflux[12][13] Chronic
  • Variable
+ +
  • Normal function
  • 24 hour−dual sensor pH probe
Common Cold[14] Acute
  • 3−10 days
+ +
  • Bacterial culture is not indicated
  • Normal function
  • Clinical diagnosis
Seasonal Influenza [15] Acute
  • 5−10 days
+ +
  • Normal function
  • Clinical diagnosis
Rhinosinusitis[16][17] Acute, subacute, chronic, recurrent
  • Acute: Less than 4 weeks
  • Subacute: 4−12 weeks
  • Chronic: More than 12 weeks
  • Recurrent: 4 or more episodes or acute rhinosinusitis per year
+ + +
  • Clear chest
  • Air−fluid level, mucosal edema and bony erosion of sinus on CT
  • MRI for distinguish the etiology
  • Normal function
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight lost Fever Dyspnea Ascultation Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Respiratory Lower airway Asthma[18] Chronic
  • Years
+ Clear mucoid or yellow sputum +
  • Family history
  • Seasonal variation
Acute Bronchitis[19] Acute
  • From 5 days to 1 or 3 weeks
+ +/− +
  • FEV1 < 80%
  • Clinical diagnosis
Chronic Bronchitis[20][21] Chronic
  • Most of the days for three months in the las two years.
+ Clear sputum + +
Non−asthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis[22][23] Chronic
  • More than 8 weeks
+ Eosinophilic sputum +
  • Exposure to an occupational cause
Bronchiectasis[24] Chronic
  • Months to years
+ Mucopurulent sputum + +
  • CT of chest
Emphysema [25] Chronic
  • Months to years
+ Mucoid or purulent sputum + +
  • Exposure of tobacco and air pollution
Foreing body aspiration[26][27][28] Acute
  • Variable
+ + + +
  • No specific tests
  • Not specific
  • In children <1 year and adults >75 years
  • Organic materials in children
  • Inorganic materials in adults
Bronchiolitis[29][30] Acute
  • 8−15 days
+ + +
  • Clinical diagnosis
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight lost Fever Dyspnea Ascultation Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Respiratory Parenchyma Pneumonia[31][32] Acute
  • Variable
+ Mucopurulent sputum + +
  • Not specific
Pneumoconioses[33][34] Acute, Chronic
  • Years
+ + +
Lung cancer[35][36] Chronic
  • Years
+ + + +/− + The following investigations may be helpful:
  • Not specific
Interstitial lung disease[37][38] Chronic
  • Variable
+ + + The following investigations may be helpful:
  • Lung biopsy when lab, imaging, and PFT has indeterminate result
Tuberculosis (TB)[39][40] Chronic
  • More than 2 or 3 weeks
+ + + + +
Cystic fibrosis (CF)[41][42] Chronic
  • Variable
+ + +/− +
  • Evidence of CFTR dysfunction
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight lost Fever Dyspnea Ascultation Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Cardiac Cardiogenic pulmonary edema[43][44] Acute
  • Days to weeks
+ Pink frothy, liquid + + The following investigations may be helpful:
  • Not specific
  • Clinical diagnosis
  • Tests are supportive
Mitral Stenosis[45][46] Chronic
  • Variable
+ Pink frothy + +
  • Not specifc
Pulmonary hypertension[47][48] Chronic
  • More than 2 years
+ + + The following investigations may be helpful:
Gastrointestinal Gastroesophageal reflux[49][50] Chronic
  • Variable
+ + +
  • Not specific
  • Normal function
  • PH testing
−−
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight lost Fever Dyspnea Ascultation Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Autoimmune Goodpasture syndrome[51][52] Chronic
  • Variable
+ + The following investigations may be helpful:
  • Pulmonary infiltratation in chest X−Ray
  • CT scan for parenchymal involvement
Wegener's disease (GPA) [53][54] Chronic
  • Months
+ + + + + The following investigations may be helpful:
Sarcoidosis[55][56] Chronic
  • Years
+ + + The following investigations may be helpful:
Microscopic polyangitis (MPA)[57] Chronic
  • Variable
+ + + + + The following investigations may be helpful:
Churg−Strauss[58][59] Chronic
  • Variable
+ + + + +
  • Infiltrates in chest X−Ray
  • Ground glass opacities, tree−in−bud sign and small nodules in chest CT
Medication ACE inhibitors[60][61] Acute (depend on the medication)
  • From 2 weeks to 6 months
+
  • Not indicated
  • No indicated
  • Normal function
  • Clinical diagnosis
  • Resolves in four to five days of stopping the medication
  • Angioedema

Epidemiology and Demographics

  • Cough is one of the most common symptoms of children in outpatient department.
  • Ninety percent of acute cough in children is resolved within three weeks. The prevalence of Chronic Cough in children is approximately 5% to 10% in USA according to American Academy of Pediatrics.

Age

  • Cough is more commonly observed among children under 5 years of age.[62]

Gender

  • Boys are more commonly affected with cough than girls.[63]

Race

  • There are racial predilection for certain causes of Cough in children. Asthma is predominant in Blacks and American Indians or Alaska native while Cystic fibrosis, Wegener's granulomatosis are more frequently affecting Caucasians according to American Lung Association.

Risk Factors

  • Common risk factors in the development of [disease name] are [risk factor 1], [risk factor 2], [risk factor 3], and [risk factor 4].

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

  • The majority of patients with [disease name] remain asymptomatic for [duration/years].
  • Early clinical features include [manifestation 1], [manifestation 2], and [manifestation 3].
  • If left untreated, [#%] of patients with [disease name] may progress to develop [manifestation 1], [manifestation 2], and [manifestation 3].
  • Common complications of [disease name] include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].
  • Prognosis is generally [excellent/good/poor], and the [1/5/10­year mortality/survival rate] of patients with [disease name] is approximately [#%].

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Criteria

  • The diagnosis of [disease name] is made when at least [number] of the following [number] diagnostic criteria are met:
  • [criterion 1]
  • [criterion 2]
  • [criterion 3]
  • [criterion 4]

Symptoms

  • [Disease name] is usually asymptomatic.
  • Symptoms of [disease name] may include the following:
  • [symptom 1]
  • [symptom 2]
  • [symptom 3]
  • [symptom 4]
  • [symptom 5]
  • [symptom 6]

Physical Examination

  • Patients with [disease name] usually appear [general appearance].
  • Physical examination may be remarkable for:
  • [finding 1]
  • [finding 2]
  • [finding 3]
  • [finding 4]
  • [finding 5]
  • [finding 6]

Laboratory Findings

  • There are no specific laboratory findings associated with [disease name].
  • A [positive/negative] [test name] is diagnostic of [disease name].
  • An [elevated/reduced] concentration of [serum/blood/urinary/CSF/other] [lab test] is diagnostic of [disease name].
  • Other laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of [disease name] include [abnormal test 1], [abnormal test 2], and [abnormal test 3].

Electrocardiogram

There are no ECG findings associated with [disease name].

OR

An ECG may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an ECG suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

X-ray

There are no x-ray findings associated with [disease name].

OR

An x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an x-ray suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no x-ray findings associated with [disease name]. However, an x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

Echocardiography or Ultrasound

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with [disease name].

OR

Echocardiography/ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an echocardiography/ultrasound suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with [disease name]. However, an echocardiography/ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

CT scan

There are no CT scan findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Location] CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on CT scan suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no CT scan findings associated with [disease name]. However, a CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

MRI

There are no MRI findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Location] MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on MRI suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no MRI findings associated with [disease name]. However, a MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

Other Imaging Findings

There are no other imaging findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Imaging modality] may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an [imaging modality] suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

Other Diagnostic Studies

  • [Disease name] may also be diagnosed using [diagnostic study name].
  • Findings on [diagnostic study name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

Treatment

Medical Therapy

  • There is no treatment for [disease name]; the mainstay of therapy is supportive care.
  • The mainstay of therapy for [disease name] is [medical therapy 1] and [medical therapy 2].
  • [Medical therapy 1] acts by [mechanism of action 1].
  • Response to [medical therapy 1] can be monitored with [test/physical finding/imaging] every [frequency/duration].

Surgery

  • Surgery is the mainstay of therapy for [disease name].
  • [Surgical procedure] in conjunction with [chemotherapy/radiation] is the most common approach to the treatment of [disease name].
  • [Surgical procedure] can only be performed for patients with [disease stage] [disease name].

Prevention

  • There are no primary preventive measures available for [disease name].
  • Effective measures for the primary prevention of [disease name] include [measure1], [measure2], and [measure3].
  • Once diagnosed and successfully treated, patients with [disease name] are followed-up every [duration]. Follow-up testing includes [test 1], [test 2], and [test 3].

References

  1. Alsubaie H, Al-Shamrani A, Alharbi AS, Alhaider S (March 2015). "Clinical practice guidelines: Approach to cough in children: The official statement endorsed by the Saudi Pediatric Pulmonology Association (SPPA)". Int J Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2 (1): 38–43. doi:10.1016/j.ijpam.2015.03.001. PMID 30805435.
  2. Chung KF, Bolser D, Davenport P, Fontana G, Morice A, Widdicombe J (April 2009). "Semantics and types of cough". Pulm Pharmacol Ther. 22 (2): 139–42. doi:10.1016/j.pupt.2008.12.008. PMID 19136069.
  3. Polverino M, Polverino F, Fasolino M, Andò F, Alfieri A, De Blasio F (June 2012). "Anatomy and neuro-pathophysiology of the cough reflex arc". Multidiscip Respir Med. 7 (1): 5. doi:10.1186/2049-6958-7-5. PMID 22958367.
  4. "Acute cough in children".
  5. Kwon NH, Oh MJ, Min TH, Lee BJ, Choi DC (May 2006). "Causes and clinical features of subacute cough". Chest. 129 (5): 1142–7. doi:10.1378/chest.129.5.1142. PMID 16685003.
  6. Bergamini M, Kantar A, Cutrera R, Interest Group I (2017). "Analysis of the Literature on Chronic Cough in Children". Open Respir Med J. 11: 1–9. doi:10.2174/1874306401711010001. PMID 28553418. Vancouver style error: initials (help)
  7. Stroud RH, Friedman NR (2001). "An update on inflammatory disorders of the pediatric airway: epiglottitis, croup, and tracheitis". Am J Otolaryngol. 22 (4): 268–75. doi:10.1053/ajot.2001.24825. PMID 11464324.
  8. Solomon P, Weisbrod M, Irish JC, Gullane PJ (1998). "Adult epiglottitis: the Toronto Hospital experience". J Otolaryngol. 27 (6): 332–6. PMID 9857318.
  9. Cherry, James D. (2008). "Croup". New England Journal of Medicine. 358 (4): 384–391. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp072022. ISSN 0028-4793.
  10. Bellamy EA, Johnston ID, Wilson AG (1987). "The chest radiograph in whooping cough". Clin Radiol. 38 (1): 39–43. PMID 3816065.
  11. "Pertussis | Whooping Cough | Clinical | Information | CDC".
  12. "What is LPR? | American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery".
  13. Noordzij JP, Khidr A, Desper E, Meek RB, Reibel JF, Levine PA (2002). "Correlation of pH probe-measured laryngopharyngeal reflux with symptoms and signs of reflux laryngitis". Laryngoscope. 112 (12): 2192–5. doi:10.1097/00005537-200212000-00013. PMID 12461340.
  14. Eccles R (2005). "Understanding the symptoms of the common cold and influenza". Lancet Infect Dis. 5 (11): 718–25. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70270-X. PMID 16253889.
  15. Kim EA, Lee KS, Primack SL, Yoon HK, Byun HS, Kim TS, Suh GY, Kwon OJ, Han J (2002). "Viral pneumonias in adults: radiologic and pathologic findings". Radiographics. 22 Spec No: S137–49. doi:10.1148/radiographics.22.suppl_1.g02oc15s137. PMID 12376607.
  16. Meltzer EO, Hamilos DL (2011). "Rhinosinusitis diagnosis and management for the clinician: a synopsis of recent consensus guidelines". Mayo Clin Proc. 86 (5): 427–43. doi:10.4065/mcp.2010.0392. PMC 3084646. PMID 21490181.
  17. Rosenfeld RM, Piccirillo JF, Chandrasekhar SS, Brook I, Ashok Kumar K, Kramper M, Orlandi RR, Palmer JN, Patel ZM, Peters A, Walsh SA, Corrigan MD (2015). "Clinical practice guideline (update): adult sinusitis". Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 152 (2 Suppl): S1–S39. doi:10.1177/0194599815572097. PMID 25832968.
  18. Ukena D, Fishman L, Niebling WB (2008). "Bronchial asthma: diagnosis and long-term treatment in adults". Dtsch Arztebl Int. 105 (21): 385–94. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2008.0385. PMC 2696883. PMID 19626179.
  19. Wenzel RP, Fowler AA (2006). "Clinical practice. Acute bronchitis". N. Engl. J. Med. 355 (20): 2125–30. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp061493. PMID 17108344.
  20. Brusasco V, Martinez F (2014). "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". Compr Physiol. 4 (1): 1–31. doi:10.1002/cphy.c110037. PMID 24692133.
  21. Qaseem A, Snow V, Shekelle P, Sherif K, Wilt TJ, Weinberger S, Owens DK (2007). "Diagnosis and management of stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians". Ann. Intern. Med. 147 (9): 633–8. PMID 17975186.
  22. Brightling CE (2006). "Chronic cough due to nonasthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines". Chest. 129 (1 Suppl): 116S–121S. doi:10.1378/chest.129.1_suppl.116S. PMID 16428700.
  23. Cho J, Choi SM, Lee J, Park YS, Lee SM, Yoo CG; et al. (2018). "Clinical Outcome of Eosinophilic Airway Inflammation in Chronic Airway Diseases Including Nonasthmatic Eosinophilic Bronchitis". Sci Rep. 8 (1): 146. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-18265-2. PMC 5760521. PMID 29317659.
  24. King PT, Holdsworth SR, Freezer NJ, Villanueva E, Holmes PW (2006). "Characterisation of the onset and presenting clinical features of adult bronchiectasis". Respir Med. 100 (12): 2183–9. doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2006.03.012. PMID 16650970.
  25. Rossi A, Butorac-Petanjek B, Chilosi M, Cosío BG, Flezar M, Koulouris N; et al. (2017). "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with mild airflow limitation: current knowledge and proposal for future research - a consensus document from six scientific societies". Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 12: 2593–2610. doi:10.2147/COPD.S132236. PMC 5587130. PMID 28919728.
  26. Hewlett JC, Rickman OB, Lentz RJ, Prakash UB, Maldonado F (2017). "Foreign body aspiration in adult airways: therapeutic approach". J Thorac Dis. 9 (9): 3398–3409. doi:10.21037/jtd.2017.06.137. PMC 5708401. PMID 29221325.
  27. Rafanan AL, Mehta AC (2001). "Adult airway foreign body removal. What's new?". Clin. Chest Med. 22 (2): 319–30. PMID 11444115.
  28. Haddadi S, Marzban S, Nemati S, Ranjbar Kiakelayeh S, Parvizi A, Heidarzadeh A (2015). "Tracheobronchial Foreign-Bodies in Children; A 7 Year Retrospective Study". Iran J Otorhinolaryngol. 27 (82): 377–85. PMC 4639691. PMID 26568942.
  29. Bordley WC, Viswanathan M, King VJ, Sutton SF, Jackman AM, Sterling L, Lohr KN (2004). "Diagnosis and testing in bronchiolitis: a systematic review". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 158 (2): 119–26. doi:10.1001/archpedi.158.2.119. PMID 14757603.
  30. "www.nice.org.uk".
  31. Bartlett JG, Dowell SF, Mandell LA, File Jr TM, Musher DM, Fine MJ (2000). "Practice guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Infectious Diseases Society of America". Clin. Infect. Dis. 31 (2): 347–82. doi:10.1086/313954. PMID 10987697.
  32. Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, Bartlett JG, Campbell GD, Dean NC, Dowell SF, File TM, Musher DM, Niederman MS, Torres A, Whitney CG (2007). "Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults". Clin. Infect. Dis. 44 Suppl 2: S27–72. doi:10.1086/511159. PMID 17278083.
  33. Jp NA, Imanaka M, Suganuma N (2017). "Japanese workplace health management in pneumoconiosis prevention". J Occup Health. 59 (2): 91–103. doi:10.1539/joh.16-0031-RA. PMC 5478517. PMID 27980247.
  34. Weiland DA, Lynch DA, Jensen SP, Newell JD, Miller DE, Crausman RS, Kuhn C, Kern DG (2003). "Thin-section CT findings in flock worker's lung, a work-related interstitial lung disease". Radiology. 227 (1): 222–31. doi:10.1148/radiol.2271011063. PMID 12668748.
  35. Jemal A, Bray F, Center MM, Ferlay J, Ward E, Forman D (2011). "Global cancer statistics". CA Cancer J Clin. 61 (2): 69–90. doi:10.3322/caac.20107. PMID 21296855.
  36. Ost DE, Jim Yeung SC, Tanoue LT, Gould MK (2013). "Clinical and organizational factors in the initial evaluation of patients with lung cancer: Diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines". Chest. 143 (5 Suppl): e121S–e141S. doi:10.1378/chest.12-2352. PMC 4694609. PMID 23649435.
  37. Lama VN, Martinez FJ (2004). "Resting and exercise physiology in interstitial lung diseases". Clin. Chest Med. 25 (3): 435–53, v. doi:10.1016/j.ccm.2004.05.005. PMID 15331185.
  38. Chetta A, Marangio E, Olivieri D (2004). "Pulmonary function testing in interstitial lung diseases". Respiration. 71 (3): 209–13. doi:10.1159/000077416. PMID 15133338.
  39. Perlman DC, el-Sadr WM, Nelson ET, Matts JP, Telzak EE, Salomon N, Chirgwin K, Hafner R (1997). "Variation of chest radiographic patterns in pulmonary tuberculosis by degree of human immunodeficiency virus-related immunosuppression. The Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS (CPCRA). The AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG)". Clin. Infect. Dis. 25 (2): 242–6. PMID 9332519.
  40. Barnes PF, Verdegem TD, Vachon LA, Leedom JM, Overturf GD (1988). "Chest roentgenogram in pulmonary tuberculosis. New data on an old test". Chest. 94 (2): 316–20. PMID 2456183.
  41. Farrell PM, Rosenstein BJ, White TB, Accurso FJ, Castellani C, Cutting GR, Durie PR, Legrys VA, Massie J, Parad RB, Rock MJ, Campbell PW (2008). "Guidelines for diagnosis of cystic fibrosis in newborns through older adults: Cystic Fibrosis Foundation consensus report". J. Pediatr. 153 (2): S4–S14. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.05.005. PMC 2810958. PMID 18639722.
  42. Kerem E, Reisman J, Corey M, Canny GJ, Levison H (1992). "Prediction of mortality in patients with cystic fibrosis". N. Engl. J. Med. 326 (18): 1187–91. doi:10.1056/NEJM199204303261804. PMID 1285737.
  43. Gheorghiade M, Zannad F, Sopko G, Klein L, Piña IL, Konstam MA, Massie BM, Roland E, Targum S, Collins SP, Filippatos G, Tavazzi L (2005). "Acute heart failure syndromes: current state and framework for future research". Circulation. 112 (25): 3958–68. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.590091. PMID 16365214.
  44. Yancy CW, Jessup M, Bozkurt B, Butler J, Casey DE, Drazner MH, Fonarow GC, Geraci SA, Horwich T, Januzzi JL, Johnson MR, Kasper EK, Levy WC, Masoudi FA, McBride PE, McMurray JJ, Mitchell JE, Peterson PN, Riegel B, Sam F, Stevenson LW, Tang WH, Tsai EJ, Wilkoff BL (2013). "2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of heart failure: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines". Circulation. 128 (16): e240–327. doi:10.1161/CIR.0b013e31829e8776. PMID 23741058.
  45. MUNROE DS, RALLY CR (1963). "The diagnosis of mitral stenosis". Can Med Assoc J. 88: 611–22. PMC 1921207. PMID 13936649.
  46. Chandrashekhar Y, Westaby S, Narula J (2009). "Mitral stenosis". Lancet. 374 (9697): 1271–83. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60994-6. PMID 19747723.
  47. Brown LM, Chen H, Halpern S, Taichman D, McGoon MD, Farber HW, Frost AE, Liou TG, Turner M, Feldkircher K, Miller DP, Elliott CG (2011). "Delay in recognition of pulmonary arterial hypertension: factors identified from the REVEAL Registry". Chest. 140 (1): 19–26. doi:10.1378/chest.10-1166. PMC 3198486. PMID 21393391.
  48. Sun XG, Hansen JE, Oudiz RJ, Wasserman K (2003). "Pulmonary function in primary pulmonary hypertension". J Am Coll Cardiol. 41 (6): 1028–35. PMID 12651053.
  49. Kahrilas PJ, Hughes N, Howden CW (2011). "Response of unexplained chest pain to proton pump inhibitor treatment in patients with and without objective evidence of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease". Gut. 60 (11): 1473–8. doi:10.1136/gut.2011.241307. PMID 21508423.
  50. Badillo R, Francis D (2014). "Diagnosis and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease". World J Gastrointest Pharmacol Ther. 5 (3): 105–12. doi:10.4292/wjgpt.v5.i3.105. PMC 4133436. PMID 25133039.
  51. Boyce NW, Holdsworth SR (1986). "Pulmonary manifestations of the clinical syndrome of acute glomerulonephritis and lung hemorrhage". Am. J. Kidney Dis. 8 (1): 31–6. PMID 3728460.
  52. Foster MH (2017). "Basement membranes and autoimmune diseases". Matrix Biol. 57-58: 149–168. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2016.07.008. PMC 5290253. PMID 27496347.
  53. Hoffman GS, Kerr GS, Leavitt RY, Hallahan CW, Lebovics RS, Travis WD, Rottem M, Fauci AS (1992). "Wegener granulomatosis: an analysis of 158 patients". Ann. Intern. Med. 116 (6): 488–98. PMID 1739240.
  54. Falk RJ, Gross WL, Guillevin L, Hoffman GS, Jayne DR, Jennette JC, Kallenberg CG, Luqmani R, Mahr AD, Matteson EL, Merkel PA, Specks U, Watts RA (2011). "Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener's): an alternative name for Wegener's granulomatosis". Arthritis Rheum. 63 (4): 863–4. doi:10.1002/art.30286. PMID 21374588.
  55. Carmona EM, Kalra S, Ryu JH (2016). "Pulmonary Sarcoidosis: Diagnosis and Treatment". Mayo Clin. Proc. 91 (7): 946–54. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2016.03.004. PMID 27378039.
  56. Yanardağ H, Pamuk GE, Karayel T, Demirci S (2002). "Bone marrow involvement in sarcoidosis: an analysis of 50 bone marrow samples". Haematologia (Budap). 32 (4): 419–25. PMID 12803116.
  57. Jennette, J. Charles; Falk, Ronald J. (1997). "Small-Vessel Vasculitis". New England Journal of Medicine. 337 (21): 1512–1523. doi:10.1056/NEJM199711203372106. ISSN 0028-4793.
  58. Vaglio A, Buzio C, Zwerina J (2013). "Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Churg-Strauss): state of the art". Allergy. 68 (3): 261–73. doi:10.1111/all.12088. PMID 23330816.
  59. Lanham JG, Elkon KB, Pusey CD, Hughes GR (1984). "Systemic vasculitis with asthma and eosinophilia: a clinical approach to the Churg-Strauss syndrome". Medicine (Baltimore). 63 (2): 65–81. PMID 6366453.
  60. Israili ZH, Hall WD (1992). "Cough and angioneurotic edema associated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor therapy. A review of the literature and pathophysiology". Ann. Intern. Med. 117 (3): 234–42. PMID 1616218.
  61. Wood R (1995). "Bronchospasm and cough as adverse reactions to the ACE inhibitors captopril, enalapril and lisinopril. A controlled retrospective cohort study". Br J Clin Pharmacol. 39 (3): 265–70. PMC 1365002. PMID 7619667.
  62. Chang AB, Glomb WB (January 2006). "Guidelines for evaluating chronic cough in pediatrics: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines". Chest. 129 (1 Suppl): 260S–283S. doi:10.1378/chest.129.1_suppl.260S. PMID 16428719.
  63. "Prevalence of cough throughout childhood: A cohort study".