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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Marufa Marium, M.B.B.S[2]

Synonyms and keywords: Cough in kids

Overview

Historical Perspective

  • The word Cough was first derived from the middle English Coughen or old English Cohhian which was primarily composed of the middle Dutch Kochen and the high middle German Kuchen, in early 14th century.

Classification

  • Cough in children may be classified or defined according to the duration of presenting complaints, quality and sound, causes of cough into several groups.[1]:
  • 1 Duration of Presenting complaints: According to the duration of cough, it can be sub classified into three categories.
    • Acute: Cough persists for less than three weeks.
    • Subacute: Cough persists for three to eight weeks.
    • Chronic: Cough persists for more than eight weeks.
  • 2. Nature or Quality and sounds: According to the quality and sound cough can be sub classified in to following categories-
    • Dry or Hacking or Nonproductive.
    • Wet or productive cough.
    • Staccato or short repetitive cough.
    • Whooping or paroxysmal violent or spasmodic cough.
    • Barking cough: Brassy barking or Honking barking.
    • Phlegmy cough.
    • Burning cough.
  • 3. Causes of Cough: Based on causes cough is subdivided into following three sub groups-
    • Normal or expected cough.
    • Specific cough.
    • Non-specific cough.
  • 4. Anatomic classification on causes of cough: Cough can be produced from different anatomical locations. for example-
    • Nose and Paranasal sinuses.
    • Pharynx.
    • Larynx.
    • Trachea and Bronchi.
    • Pulmonary parenchyma.
    • Pleura.
    • Mediastinum.
    • Heart and blood vessels.
    • External ear and Tympanic membrane.
    • Esophagus.
  • 5. Grades of cough: Cough can be graded into four main sub categories-[2]
    • Eutussia or Normal.
    • Hypertussia or Sensitized.
    • Hypotussia or Desensitized.
    • Dystussia or Pathological.
    • Atussia or Absent.

Cough in children can also be classified under infectious (Bacterial, Viral, fungal, Parasitic) or non-infectous categories broadly.

Pathophysiology

  • Cough is natural innate primitive reflex that helps in mucocilliary clearance of foreign particles and secretions from respiratory tracts. It is also a defensive mechanism protecting respiratory airways from aspiration of pathogens, particulates and secretions. A complex arc comprised of neuro-respiratory pathways helps in initiating the cough reflex.[3]
 
 
 
Mechanical and chemical stimulation of cough receptors (Rapidly adapting receptors, slowly adapting receptors or C-fibers) in Respiratory airways
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Afferent pathways: Sensory nerve fibers via Vagus Nerve from ciliated columnar epithelium of upper airways, cardiac and esophageal branches from diaphragm send impulse to central cough center
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Central cough center in upper brain stem medulla and pons send impulse of sequence of phases (Inspiratory, Compressive, Expiratory) for constituting cough
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Efferent pathways: The nucleus retroambigualis sends impulse via phrenic and spinal motor nerves to diaphragm and abdominal and respiratory muscles, the nucleus ambiguous sends impulse to larynx by laryngeal branches of vagus nerve
 
 
 
  • On gross pathology, Bloody, Serous , Mucoid, Rusty, Pink frothy, and Purulent are characteristic findings of sputum produced by coughing.
  • On microscopic histopathological analysis, Pathogens, RBCs, Leukocytes, epithelial celss are characteristic findings of Sputum produced by coughing.

Causes

Causes of cough in children according to duration[4][5][6]:

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Cough
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Acute(<3 weeks) •Common Cold
Allergic Rhinitis
Bronchitis
Bronchiolitis
Asthma
Whooping Cough
Influenza
Croup or Tracheolaryngobronchitis
Pneumonia
Irritation by smoking
Foreign Body
GERD
 
 
 
 
Subacute(3-8 weeks) •Whooping Cough or Pertussis
•Post infectious Cough
Bacterial Sinusitis
Asthma
 
 
 
 
Chronic(>8 weeks) •Upper Airway Cough Syndrome
Asthma
Bronchiectasis in Cystic fibrosis and Kartagener Syndrome
Chronic sinusitis
Malacia
•Foreign Body
Nonasthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis
•Respiratory environmental toxins

According to quality and sound of cough in children, the causes can be classified according to following chart.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Dry or Hacking or Nonproductive
 
Sinusitis, Tonsillitis, Pharyngitis, Allergic Rhinitis, GERD, Asthma, Environmental exposure to irritants(pollen, dust, mites, smokes), Post infectious cough.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Wet or productive cough
 
Cystic fibrosis, Bronchiectasis, Bronchiolitis, Tuberculosis, Rhinitis, Postnasal drip, Pneumonia, Emphysema, Acute bronchitis, Asthma
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Causes of Cough based on Nature or quality and sound
 
 
 
 
Staccato or short repetitive cough
 
Chlamydia pneumonia
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Whooping or paroxysmal violent or spasmodic cough
 
Pertussis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Barking cough
 
Brassy barking: Croup, Tracheomalacia, Laryngitis, Tracheitis
Honking barking: Psychogenic cough , Tourette syndrome (habit cough)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Stridor
 
Viral Croup, Epiglottis, Bacterial tracheitis, Retropharyngeal and peritonsilar abscess
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Burning cough
 
Bacterial Bronchitis, Irritants
 
 
 
 
 
 

Based on anatomical location the causes of cough in children can be demonstrated into following chart-

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Nose and Paranasal sinuses
 
Rhinitis, Foreign Body, Sinusitis, Nasal polyp, ppHypertrophied inferior turbinate]]
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Pharynx
 
Pharyngitis, Foreign Body, Irritants
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Larynx
 
Laryngitis, Epiglottis, Tonsillitis, Laryngomalacia, Subglottic stenosis, Foreign body
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Trachea and Bronchi
 
Tracheitis, Croup, Bronchiolitis, Bronchiectasis, Bronchitis, Cystic fibrosis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Causes based on anatomic location
 
 
 
 
Pulmonary parenchyma
 
Pneumonia, Tuberculosis, Environmental toxin, Respiratory distress syndrome, Aspiration syndrome, Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis, Connective tissue disease, Alveolar capillary dysplasia, Neuroendocrine cell hyperplasia of infancy, Medications, Mutations causing surfactant dysfunction, Emphysema
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Pleura
 
Pleurisy, Pneumothorax, Hemothorax, Parapneumonic effusions, Pleural tuberculosis, Congenital hydrothorax and chylothorax
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Mediastinum
 
Mediastinitis, Mediastinal Tuberculosis, Thymoma, Thymic hyperplasia, Thymic carcinoma, Neuroblastoma, Ganglioneuroma, Non Hodgkin lymphoma, Sarcoma, Mature teratoma, Endodermal sinus tumor, Hemangioma, Wilms tumor, Lymphangioma
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Heart and blood vessels
 
Congenital heart disease, Valvular heart disease, Heart failure, Myocarditis, Cardiomyopathies, Wegener granulomatosis, Vasculitis, Arteriovenous malformation
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
External ear and Tympanic membrane
 
Otitis media and externa, Impaction of foreign body, wax, Myringitis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Esophagus
 
GERD, Tracheoesophageal Fistula
 
 
 
 
 
 

Differentiating Cough from other Diseases

Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight loss Fever Dyspnea Physical Examination Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Respiratory Upper airway diseases Epiglottitis[7][8] Abrupt or acute
  • 12−24 hours
+ +
  • Elevated white blood count in CBC
  • Blood culture may show bacterial growth
  • Epiglottal culture in intubated patients may show bacterial growth
  • Enlarge epiglottis (>8 mm), loss of vallecular air space and distended hypopharynx as known as 'Thumb print' sign on lateral neck X−ray may be helpful
  • Normal function
Croup[9] Acute
  • 3−5 days
+ + +
  • Clinical diagnosis.
  • Laboratory findings and imaging are not necessary for diagnosis
Pertussis[10][11] Acute
  • Two weeks
+ Whooping sound + + +
  • Clear chest
  • Normal function
  • Culture
Common Cold[12] Acute
  • 3−10 days
+ +
  • Bacterial culture is not indicated
  • Normal function
  • Clinical diagnosis
Tonsilitis[13][14][15] Acute or Acute Recurrent, Chronic
  • Varies
+(Mucus from inflamed tissue) −/+ + Odynophagia, Tachypnea
  • Rapid Antigen Detecting Test
  • Throat Swab Culture
  • EBV Heterophile Antibody Test
  • Monospot Test
  • Complete Blood Count
  • Chest X−Ray shows normal finding. USG may show Peritonsillar abscess.
  • Normal function
  • Rapid Antigen Detecting Test
Seasonal Influenza[16][17] Acute
  • Upper respiratory tract symptoms with fever peaking at three to four days, resolved by seven to ten days.
+(High grade) +
  • Normal function
  • Clinical diagnosis
Sinusitis[18][19] Acute, Subacute, Chronic, recurrent
  • Acute: Less than 4 weeks
  • Subacute: 4−12 weeks
  • Chronic: More than 12 weeks
  • Recurrent: 4 or more episodes or acute rhinosinusitis per year
+ + +
  • Restlessness, Nasal Congestion, Post Nasal Drip, Facial Pain, Rhinorrhea
  • Air−fluid level, mucosal edema and bony erosion of sinus on CT
  • MRI for distinguish the etiology
  • Normal function
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight loss Fever Dyspnea Physical findings Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Respiratory Lower airway Asthma[20][21] Chronic
  • Years
+ Clear mucoid or yellow sputum +
  • Family history
  • Seasonal variation
Bacterial Protracted Bonchitis[22][23] Chronic
  • Atleast four weeks
+(Purulent) + +/− +
  • FEV1 < 80%
  • Clinical diagnosis
  • Majority of cases are caused by Streptococci Pneumoniae, Hemophylous Influenza, Staphylococcus aureus
Bronchiectasis[24][25][26] Chronic
  • Months to years
+ Mucopurulent sputum + +
  • CT of chest
'Foreign body aspiration[27][28][29] Acute
  • Sudden Onset
+ +/- +/- +
  • No specific tests
  • Not specific
  • In children <1 year
  • Organic materials in children
Bronchiolitis[30][31] Acute
  • 8−15 days
+ + +
  • Rhinorrhoea
  • Cyanosis, Hypoxia
  • Intercostal and subcostal retraction
  • Tachypnea
  • Wheezing
  • Crackles
  • Grunting and Nasal Flaring
  • Clinical diagnosis
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight loss Fever Dyspnea Physical findings Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Respiratory Lung Parenchyma Pneumonia[32][33] Acute
  • Variable
+ Mucopurulent sputum + +
  • Not specific
Tuberculosis (TB)[34][35] Chronic
  • More than 2 or 3 weeks
+ + + + +
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight loss Fever Dyspnea Physical findings Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Cardiovascular system Cardiac Diease Congenital Heart Disease Acute or Chronic
  • Variable
+ + +
  • Not specific
  • Normal function
  • PH testing
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight loss Fever Dyspnea Physical findings Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Ear Earways Disease Om/OE Acute or Chronic
  • Variable
+ + +
  • Not specific
  • Normal function
  • PH testing
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight loss Fever Dyspnea Physical findings Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Others Psychogenic Tourrette or habitual Acute or Chronic
  • Variable
+ + +
  • Not specific
  • Normal function
  • PH testing
Organ system Diseases Clinical manifestations Diagnosis Other features
Symptoms Physical exam
Onset Duration Productive cough Hemoptysis Weight loss Fever Dyspnea Physical findings Lab findings Imaging PFT Gold standard
Gastrointestinal Upper GI GERD[36][37] Chronic
  • Variable
+ + +
  • Not specific
  • Normal function
  • PH testing
−−

Epidemiology and Demographics

  • Cough is one of the most common symptoms of children in outpatient department.
  • Ninety percent of acute cough in children is resolved within three weeks. The prevalence of Chronic Cough in children is approximately 5% to 10% in USA according to American Academy of Pediatrics.

Age

  • Cough is more commonly observed among children under 5 years of age.[38]

Gender

  • Boys are more commonly affected with cough than girls.[39]

Race

  • There are racial predilection for certain causes of Cough in children. Asthma is predominant in Blacks and American Indians or Alaska native while Cystic fibrosis, Wegener's granulomatosis are more frequently affecting Caucasians according to American Lung Association.

Risk Factors

  • Common risk factors in the development of Cough in children are-
    • Preterm Birth and delivery by caesarian section.
    • Respiratory Distress Syndrome.
    • Congenital Heart Disease.
    • Age less than 1 year.
    • Maternal Influenza vaccination.
    • Malnutrition.
    • Secondary exposure to tobacco smoke.
    • Air pollutants, Mold, Inadequate ventilation.
    • Immunodeficiencies.
    • Daycare attendance.
    • History of Atopy.
    • Household pets.
    • Low socioeconomic status.

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

  • The majority of patients with acute cough have recovery within three weeks in 90% of cases. Some of cases are progressed to sub-acute and chronic phases. Chronic cough lasts more than eight weeks whereas recurrent cough can affect a child for more than two years with 1-2 weeks duration in each episodes.
  • Early clinical features include frequent episodes of coughing, Runny nose, Sneezing, Low grade fever, Sore Throat, Night Sweats, Arching Back, Irritability, Failure to thrive, Fussiness, Chocking sensation(Foreign body impaction).
  • If left untreated, Cough can cause following complication in children.
  • Prognosis is generally [excellent/good/poor], and the [1/5/10­year mortality/survival rate] of patients with [disease name] is approximately [#%].

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Criteria

  • The diagnosis of Causes of Cough is made after a detailed history, presenting complaints and physical examination and laboratory findings in some cases. Cough can be classified according to-
    • Duration.
    • Nature or quality of cough.
    • Etiology.
    • Anatomic location.
    • Grade.

A detailed history focusing on onset of disease, factors worsening the episodes, time of worsening, alleviating factors, amount work of breathing, presence of shortness of breathing, relation with vomiting, food intake, posture, presence of blood, systemic findings(fever, weight loss, hypotension, syncope, vertigo, dizziness, failure to thrive), episodes of chocking, household socioeconomic status, family history, Vaccination history, drug abuse and smoking in family members, atopy, Antenatal, perinatal, postnatal, Birth history, Developmental histort, feeding history. The following signs are alarming which need further emergent evaluation by the physician.

Symptoms

  • Symptoms of Cough may include the following:

Physical Examination

  • Patients with Cough usually restless, irritable, fussy. Children with severe respiratory distress usually are toxic and cyanotic in appearance. Presence of grunting, nasal flaring, Intercostal or subcostal retraction or Accessory muscle usage needs prompt evaluation.
  • Physical examination may be remarkable for:
  • Vital signs: Documentation according to patient's age-
    • Temperature
    • Heart rate
    • Respiratory rate
    • Blood pressure
    • Growth and developmental parameters: Weight, Height, Length, Occipito Frontal Circumferance
  • General Appearence: Level of consciousness, Cyanosis, Distressed or ill appearing, Hydration and nutritional status.
  • Skin: Turgor, color, texture, rashes or any other abnormal findings.
  • Lymphatics: Lymphadenopathy, location, Number and size, consistency, adherence to underlying structures.
  • Head: Size, shape, fontanelle, overlapping suture, scalp, hair.
  • Eyes: Lacrimation, conjuntival injection, periorbital redness.
  • Ears: Position of ears along with external auditory canal, tympanic membrane visualization.
  • Nose: Any deviation of nasal septum, normal or hypertrophied inferior turbinates, nasal polyps and congesion, nasal discharge, tenderness over sinus point.
  • Mouth and throat:
    • Lips: Color and congenital lesions.
    • Buccal mucosa: Hydration, Color, Presence of anomaly.
    • Tongue and teeth and gum: Developmental anomaly, Color, papllae.
    • Palate: Anomaly, arch.
    • Tonsils: Color, Size, Any membrane, calcification and Exudates.
    • Posterior pharyngeal wall: Color, appearence.
    • Gag reflex: Intact or not.
  • Neck: Throid, Trachea position and examination, Any Cystic or nodular masses, presence of Nuchal Rigidity.
  • Respiratory:
    • Inspection: Breathing pattern(Abdominal and periodic), Respiratory rate, Accessory muscle usage, Chest wall shape.
    • Auscultation: Breath sound symetry, vesicular, bronchial, rales, rhonchi, wheezes, stridor.
    • Percussion: Resonance, hyperresonance and dull.
    • Palpation: Trachea position, Tactile fremitus.
  • Cardiovascular: Rhythm, murmur, any radiation of sound, pulse in both extremities.
  • Gastrointestinal: Shape of abdomen, Umbilicus, Bowel sounds, Palpation to evaluate any organomegaly or masses. or rebound guarding.
  • Musculoskeletal: Aching back, scoliosis, lordosis, kyphoscoliosis, swelling and tenderness in any muscles, joint, clubbing, edema, deformity of extremities, gait and posture, any sign for hip dysplasia.
  • CNS: Primitive reflex, superficial and deep tendon reflex, strength and tone of muscles, cranial nerve examination.
  • Genitourinary: Presence of external genitalia deformity , hydrocele, cryptoorchidism or hernia.

Laboratory Findings

  • There are no specific laboratory findings associated with [disease name].
  • A [positive/negative] [test name] is diagnostic of [disease name].
  • An [elevated/reduced] concentration of [serum/blood/urinary/CSF/other] [lab test] is diagnostic of [disease name].
  • Other laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of [disease name] include [abnormal test 1], [abnormal test 2], and [abnormal test 3].

Electrocardiogram

There are no ECG findings associated with [disease name].

OR

An ECG may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an ECG suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

X-ray

There are no x-ray findings associated with [disease name].

OR

An x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an x-ray suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no x-ray findings associated with [disease name]. However, an x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

Echocardiography or Ultrasound

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with [disease name].

OR

Echocardiography/ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an echocardiography/ultrasound suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with [disease name]. However, an echocardiography/ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

CT scan

There are no CT scan findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Location] CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on CT scan suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no CT scan findings associated with [disease name]. However, a CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

MRI

There are no MRI findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Location] MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on MRI suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no MRI findings associated with [disease name]. However, a MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

Other Imaging Findings

There are no other imaging findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Imaging modality] may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an [imaging modality] suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

Other Diagnostic Studies

  • [Disease name] may also be diagnosed using [diagnostic study name].
  • Findings on [diagnostic study name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

Treatment

Medical Therapy

  • There is no treatment for [disease name]; the mainstay of therapy is supportive care.
  • The mainstay of therapy for [disease name] is [medical therapy 1] and [medical therapy 2].
  • [Medical therapy 1] acts by [mechanism of action 1].
  • Response to [medical therapy 1] can be monitored with [test/physical finding/imaging] every [frequency/duration].

Surgery

  • Surgery is the mainstay of therapy for [disease name].
  • [Surgical procedure] in conjunction with [chemotherapy/radiation] is the most common approach to the treatment of [disease name].
  • [Surgical procedure] can only be performed for patients with [disease stage] [disease name].

Prevention

  • There are no primary preventive measures available for [disease name].
  • Effective measures for the primary prevention of [disease name] include [measure1], [measure2], and [measure3].
  • Once diagnosed and successfully treated, patients with [disease name] are followed-up every [duration]. Follow-up testing includes [test 1], [test 2], and [test 3].

References

  1. Alsubaie H, Al-Shamrani A, Alharbi AS, Alhaider S (March 2015). "Clinical practice guidelines: Approach to cough in children: The official statement endorsed by the Saudi Pediatric Pulmonology Association (SPPA)". Int J Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2 (1): 38–43. doi:10.1016/j.ijpam.2015.03.001. PMID 30805435.
  2. Chung KF, Bolser D, Davenport P, Fontana G, Morice A, Widdicombe J (April 2009). "Semantics and types of cough". Pulm Pharmacol Ther. 22 (2): 139–42. doi:10.1016/j.pupt.2008.12.008. PMID 19136069.
  3. Polverino M, Polverino F, Fasolino M, Andò F, Alfieri A, De Blasio F (June 2012). "Anatomy and neuro-pathophysiology of the cough reflex arc". Multidiscip Respir Med. 7 (1): 5. doi:10.1186/2049-6958-7-5. PMID 22958367.
  4. "Acute cough in children".
  5. Kwon NH, Oh MJ, Min TH, Lee BJ, Choi DC (May 2006). "Causes and clinical features of subacute cough". Chest. 129 (5): 1142–7. doi:10.1378/chest.129.5.1142. PMID 16685003.
  6. Bergamini M, Kantar A, Cutrera R, Interest Group I (2017). "Analysis of the Literature on Chronic Cough in Children". Open Respir Med J. 11: 1–9. doi:10.2174/1874306401711010001. PMID 28553418. Vancouver style error: initials (help)
  7. Abdallah C (July 2012). "Acute epiglottitis: Trends, diagnosis and management". Saudi J Anaesth. 6 (3): 279–81. doi:10.4103/1658-354X.101222. PMC 3498669. PMID 23162404.
  8. "Epiglottitis, Acute Laryngitis, and Croup".
  9. Cherry, James D. (2008). "Croup". New England Journal of Medicine. 358 (4): 384–391. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp072022. ISSN 0028-4793.
  10. Bellamy EA, Johnston ID, Wilson AG (1987). "The chest radiograph in whooping cough". Clin Radiol. 38 (1): 39–43. PMID 3816065.
  11. "Pertussis | Whooping Cough | Clinical | Information | CDC".
  12. Eccles R (2005). "Understanding the symptoms of the common cold and influenza". Lancet Infect Dis. 5 (11): 718–25. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70270-X. PMID 16253889.
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