Constipation pathophysiology: Difference between revisions
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
No edit summary |
No edit summary |
||
| Line 35: | Line 35: | ||
==== Primary constipation ==== | ==== Primary constipation ==== | ||
* Primary constipation is considered when the secondary causes of [[constipation]] | * Primary constipation is considered when the secondary causes of [[constipation]] are ruled out. Without any certain causes or alarm signs, [[empiric therapy]] with [[Dietary fiber|dietary fibers]] and [[laxatives]] is administered. If the [[laxative]] treatment is successful, there will be no need to additional work up. | ||
* Colonic transit test is needed if further work up is necessary | * Colonic transit test is needed if further work up is necessary for constipation. The procedure consist of [[ingestion]] of marker-contained capsule and taking an [[abdominal X-ray]] after 120 h (5 days).<ref name="pmid21138500">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rao SS, Camilleri M, Hasler WL, Maurer AH, Parkman HP, Saad R, Scott MS, Simren M, Soffer E, Szarka L |title=Evaluation of gastrointestinal transit in clinical practice: position paper of the American and European Neurogastroenterology and Motility Societies |journal=Neurogastroenterol. Motil. |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=8–23 |year=2011 |pmid=21138500 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2982.2010.01612.x |url=}}</ref> | ||
* After counting | * After locating and counting the markers, if more than 20% of markers remains within the [[colon]], it is defined as slow transit [[disease]]. | ||
** '''Normal-transit constipation''' | ** '''Normal-transit constipation''' | ||
*** The most common form of constipation referred to [[clinicians]] is normal transit constipation, which is also known as [[functional constipation]].<ref name="pmid16678561">{{cite journal |vauthors=Longstreth GF, Thompson WG, Chey WD, Houghton LA, Mearin F, Spiller RC |title=Functional bowel disorders |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=130 |issue=5 |pages=1480–91 |year=2006 |pmid=16678561 |doi=10.1053/j.gastro.2005.11.061 |url=}}</ref> | *** The most common form of constipation referred to [[clinicians]] is normal transit constipation, which is also known as [[functional constipation]].<ref name="pmid16678561">{{cite journal |vauthors=Longstreth GF, Thompson WG, Chey WD, Houghton LA, Mearin F, Spiller RC |title=Functional bowel disorders |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=130 |issue=5 |pages=1480–91 |year=2006 |pmid=16678561 |doi=10.1053/j.gastro.2005.11.061 |url=}}</ref> | ||
*** | *** Majority of the patients experience normal transit time and [[stool]] frequency. Numerous patients meet the criteria for [[Irritable bowel syndrome|irritable bowel syndrome with constipation (IBS-C)]] or [[Psychological|psychological disorders]].<ref name="pmid8561138">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ashraf W, Park F, Lof J, Quigley EM |title=An examination of the reliability of reported stool frequency in the diagnosis of idiopathic constipation |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=91 |issue=1 |pages=26–32 |year=1996 |pmid=8561138 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
*** '''''Rome III criteria''''' for [[functional constipation]] is presence of two or more than the followings for ≥ 3 months and onset | *** '''''Rome III criteria''''' for [[functional constipation]] is presence of two or more than two of the followings for ≥ 3 months and onset ≥ 6 months before the [[diagnosis]]:<ref name="pmid16305718">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cash BD, Chey WD |title=Review article: The role of serotonergic agents in the treatment of patients with primary chronic constipation |journal=Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. |volume=22 |issue=11-12 |pages=1047–60 |year=2005 |pmid=16305718 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2036.2005.02696.x |url=}}</ref> | ||
**** < 3 [[defecation]] per week | **** < 3 [[defecation]] per week | ||
**** Straining during [[defecation]] | **** Straining during [[defecation]] | ||
| Line 50: | Line 50: | ||
*** Most of the patients are cured with [[Dietary fiber|dietary fibers]], [[osmotic]] [[laxatives]], or enterokinetics. | *** Most of the patients are cured with [[Dietary fiber|dietary fibers]], [[osmotic]] [[laxatives]], or enterokinetics. | ||
** '''Slow-transit constipation''' | ** '''Slow-transit constipation''' | ||
*** Slow-transit constipation is consisted of significant decreased number of [[Defecation|defecations]], less than once a week | *** Slow-transit constipation is consisted of significant decreased number of [[Defecation|defecations]], less than once a week and the majority of times involve young women.<ref name="pmid3949236">{{cite journal |vauthors=Preston DM, Lennard-Jones JE |title=Severe chronic constipation of young women: 'idiopathic slow transit constipation' |journal=Gut |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=41–8 |year=1986 |pmid=3949236 |pmc=1433176 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
*** The more severe form, called "colonic inertia", is the condition in which eating and [[Prokinetic|prokinetics]] | *** The more severe form, called "colonic inertia", is the condition in which eating and [[Prokinetic|prokinetics]] does not lead to increase in motor activity and HAPCs.<ref name="pmid15300885">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bassotti G, Roberto GD, Sediari L, Morelli A |title=Toward a definition of colonic inertia |journal=World J. Gastroenterol. |volume=10 |issue=17 |pages=2465–7 |year=2004 |pmid=15300885 |pmc=4572142 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
*** | *** The slow-transit constipation is due to decreased number of [[Interstitial cells of Cajal|interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC)]] and alteration of [[Myenteric plexus|myenteric plexus neurons]] which secretes [[substance P]].<ref name="pmid10611149">{{cite journal |vauthors=He CL, Burgart L, Wang L, Pemberton J, Young-Fadok T, Szurszewski J, Farrugia G |title=Decreased interstitial cell of cajal volume in patients with slow-transit constipation |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=14–21 |year=2000 |pmid=10611149 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8980942">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tzavella K, Riepl RL, Klauser AG, Voderholzer WA, Schindlbeck NE, Müller-Lissner SA |title=Decreased substance P levels in rectal biopsies from patients with slow transit constipation |journal=Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=1207–11 |year=1996 |pmid=8980942 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
*** Hypoganglionosis, [[inflammatory]] [[neuropathy]], and leiomyopathy are other causes of slow-transit constipation. | *** Hypoganglionosis, [[inflammatory]] [[neuropathy]], and leiomyopathy are other causes of slow-transit constipation. | ||
** '''Defecation disorder''' | ** '''Defecation disorder''' | ||
*** Straining and spending long times in toilet are the main findings | *** Straining and spending long times in toilet are the main findings in patients with [[defecation]] disorder. | ||
*** Patients with [[defecation]] disorder often have problems even with liquid and firm stools. Therefore, [[laxatives]] are not effective mostly. | *** Patients with [[defecation]] disorder often have problems even with liquid and firm stools. Therefore, [[laxatives]] are not effective mostly. | ||
*** [[Anorectal]] [[Manometry|manometery]] and balloon expulsion test are the [[Gold standard (test)|gold-standard]] tests for diagnosing functional defecation disorder.<ref name="pmid15984989">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rao SS, Ozturk R, Laine L |title=Clinical utility of diagnostic tests for constipation in adults: a systematic review |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=100 |issue=7 |pages=1605–15 |year=2005 |pmid=15984989 |doi=10.1111/j.1572-0241.2005.41845.x |url=}}</ref> | *** [[Anorectal]] [[Manometry|manometery]] and balloon expulsion test are the [[Gold standard (test)|gold-standard]] tests for diagnosing functional defecation disorder.<ref name="pmid15984989">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rao SS, Ozturk R, Laine L |title=Clinical utility of diagnostic tests for constipation in adults: a systematic review |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=100 |issue=7 |pages=1605–15 |year=2005 |pmid=15984989 |doi=10.1111/j.1572-0241.2005.41845.x |url=}}</ref> | ||
*** | *** The majority of the functional defecation disorders are due to dyssynergia. Dyssynergia is an acquired condition due to disorganized toilet habits, pain during [[defecation]], [[obstetrics]] and back injuries.<ref name="pmid187939972">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rao SS |title=Dyssynergic defecation and biofeedback therapy |journal=Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=569–86, viii |year=2008 |pmid=18793997 |pmc=2575098 |doi=10.1016/j.gtc.2008.06.011 |url=}}</ref> | ||
*** The | *** The primary defect in dyssynergia is lack of coordination among [[Abdominal muscles|abdominal]], [[Anorectal|rectoanal]], and [[pelvic floor muscles]] contractions during [[defecation]] process.<ref name="pmid187939972" /> | ||
==== Secondary constipation ==== | ==== Secondary constipation ==== | ||
* Most of [[medications]] can lead to constipation as a [[side effect]]. Therefore, a | * Most of [[medications]] can lead to constipation as a [[side effect]]. Therefore, a comprehensive history of medications is needed in every patients with constipation.<ref name="pmid21332973">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fosnes GS, Lydersen S, Farup PG |title=Constipation and diarrhoea - common adverse drug reactions? A cross sectional study in the general population |journal=BMC Clin Pharmacol |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2 |year=2011 |pmid=21332973 |pmc=3049147 |doi=10.1186/1472-6904-11-2 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21194659">{{cite journal |vauthors=Simonson W, Han LF, Davidson HE |title=Hypertension treatment and outcomes in US nursing homes: results from the US National Nursing Home Survey |journal=J Am Med Dir Assoc |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=44–9 |year=2011 |pmid=21194659 |doi=10.1016/j.jamda.2010.02.009 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20658791">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dolder C, Nelson M, Stump A |title=Pharmacological and clinical profile of newer antidepressants: implications for the treatment of elderly patients |journal=Drugs Aging |volume=27 |issue=8 |pages=625–40 |year=2010 |pmid=20658791 |doi=10.2165/11537140-000000000-00000 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12809835">{{cite journal |vauthors=Talley NJ, Jones M, Nuyts G, Dubois D |title=Risk factors for chronic constipation based on a general practice sample |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=98 |issue=5 |pages=1107–11 |year=2003 |pmid=12809835 |doi=10.1111/j.1572-0241.2003.07465.x |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21375137">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosti G, Gatti A, Costantini A, Sabato AF, Zucco F |title=Opioid-related bowel dysfunction: prevalence and identification of predictive factors in a large sample of Italian patients on chronic treatment |journal=Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1045–50 |year=2010 |pmid=21375137 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
!Group | !Group | ||
| Line 107: | Line 106: | ||
|[[Cannabinoids]] | |[[Cannabinoids]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| colspan="2" |'''Anti-Parkinson''' | | colspan="2" |'''[[Parkinson's disease medical therapy|Anti-Parkinson]]''' | ||
| rowspan="3" | | | rowspan="3" | | ||
* Regular use of [[laxatives]] | * Regular use of [[laxatives]] | ||
| Line 123: | Line 122: | ||
| colspan="2" |[[Vinca alkaloids|'''Vinca alkaloids''']] | | colspan="2" |[[Vinca alkaloids|'''Vinca alkaloids''']] | ||
|} | |} | ||
* [[Diseases]] that | * [[Diseases]] that disturb the [[nervous system]] may lead to constipation, such as [[diabetes mellitus]], [[autonomic neuropathy]], [[Chagas' disease]], and [[Hirschsprung's disease]]. | ||
* Both [[hyperglycemia]] and [[hypoglycemia]] | * Both [[hyperglycemia]] and [[hypoglycemia]] may lead to [[bowel movement]] disturbance and constipation.<ref name="pmid12594591">{{cite journal |vauthors=Takahashi T, Matsuda K, Kono T, Pappas TN |title=Inhibitory effects of hyperglycemia on neural activity of the vagus in rats |journal=Intensive Care Med |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=309–11 |year=2003 |pmid=12594591 |doi=10.1007/s00134-002-1580-3 |url=}}</ref> | ||
==Genetics== | ==Genetics== | ||
*[[Genetic]] studies | *[[Genetic]] studies have shown the role of [[genetics]] in childhood constipation due to various [[pathogenesis]]. | ||
*[[Genes]] involved in the [[pathogenesis]] of childhood constipation and related diseases are as following:<ref name="pmid21382580">{{cite journal |vauthors=Peeters B, Benninga MA, Hennekam RC |title=Childhood constipation; an overview of genetic studies and associated syndromes |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=73–88 |year=2011 |pmid=21382580 |doi=10.1016/j.bpg.2010.12.005 |url=}}</ref> | *[[Genes]] involved in the [[pathogenesis]] of childhood constipation and related diseases are as following:<ref name="pmid21382580">{{cite journal |vauthors=Peeters B, Benninga MA, Hennekam RC |title=Childhood constipation; an overview of genetic studies and associated syndromes |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=73–88 |year=2011 |pmid=21382580 |doi=10.1016/j.bpg.2010.12.005 |url=}}</ref> | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
| Line 136: | Line 135: | ||
!Other manifestations | !Other manifestations | ||
|- | |- | ||
| rowspan="9" | | | rowspan="9" |[[Autonomic nervous system|'''Autonomic nervous system''']] | ||
|[[GFAP]] | |[[GFAP]] | ||
|203450/17q21 | |203450/17q21 | ||
| Line 427: | Line 426: | ||
* [[Depression]] | * [[Depression]] | ||
* [[Eating disorders]] | * [[Eating disorders]] | ||
* Multiple | * Multiple drugs use | ||
* [[Colon cancer]] | * [[Colon cancer]] | ||
* External compression from [[malignant]] lesion | * External compression from [[malignant]] lesion | ||
* Strictures: [[diverticular]] or postischemic | * [[Strictures]]: [[diverticular]] or postischemic | ||
* [[Rectocele]] (if large) | * [[Rectocele]] (if large) | ||
* [[Postsurgical]] abnormalities | * [[Postsurgical]] abnormalities | ||
| Line 456: | Line 455: | ||
*On microscopic [[histopathological]] analysis, there is no finding related to constipation. | *On microscopic [[histopathological]] analysis, there is no finding related to constipation. | ||
*Chronic use of the [[laxative]] may lead to [[melanosis coli]], which is identified by [[hyperpigmentation]] and brownish discoloration of [[Colon|colonic]] [[mucosa]]. | *Chronic use of the [[laxative]] may lead to [[melanosis coli]], which is identified by [[hyperpigmentation]] and brownish discoloration of [[Colon|colonic]] [[mucosa]]. | ||
*The | *The primary [[microscopic]] [[histopathological]] finding in [[melanosis coli]] is brown granular [[pigment]] in [[lamina propria]]. | ||
{| align: " right | {| align: " right | ||
|[[image:Melanosis coli (4130655629).jpg|thumb|200px|Melanosis coli with brown granular pigments, By Ed Uthman from Houston, TX, USA - Uploaded by CFCF, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=30104213]] | |[[image:Melanosis coli (4130655629).jpg|thumb|200px|Melanosis coli with brown granular pigments, By Ed Uthman from Houston, TX, USA - Uploaded by CFCF, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=30104213]] | ||
Revision as of 17:30, 5 January 2018
|
Constipation Microchapters |
|
Diagnosis |
|---|
|
Treatment |
|
Case Studies |
|
Constipation On the Web |
|
American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Constipation |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Eiman Ghaffarpasand, M.D. [2]
Overview
About 1.5 liter fluid enters the colon from small intestine every day. Colon only excrete out 200-400 mL stool. The defecation process consist of three important stages, include filling of the rectum, sensation of rectum fullness, and relaxation of pelvic floor muscles in a coordinated fashion. Primary constipation is caused by anorectal and colonic problems, while secondary constipation is caused by organic and metabolic diseases or medications. Diseases that disturb the nervous system may lead to constipation, such as diabetes mellitus, autonomic neuropathy, Chagas' disease, and Hirschsprung's disease. Chronic use of the laxative may lead to melanosis coli, which is identified by hyperpigmentation and brownish discoloration of colonic mucosa. The main microscopic histopathological finding in melanosis coli is brown granular pigment in lamina propria.
Pathophysiology
Colonic Function
- Water absorption
- About 1.5 liter fluid enters the colon from small intestine every day. Colon excrete out only 200-400 mL stool.
- Colon absorb water and transit the stool into rectum to store and expel. The amount of water that is absorbed in rectum depends on the state of hydration.[1]
- Both sodium and chloride are the key elements in reabsorbing water from colon. The more time stool remains in the colon, the drier it becomes.[2]
- Motility
- There are two mechanism of gross motility in colon including:[1]
- Repetitive non-propulsive contractions: The primary type of contraction responsible for mixing and absorption of contents.
- High-amplitude propagated contractions (HAPCs): Large coordinated contraction responsible for pushing the stool forward. Increases in the morning and after drinking and/or eating.
- Normal colonic transit time is about 20-72 hours.[3]
- HAPCs are usually decreased in constipation and maybe the main pathophysiology of constipation.[4]
- On molecular basis, the primary movements of the gut (peristalsis) are regulated through serotonin (5-hydroxytriptamine [5HT]). 5HT is released from enterochromaffin cells when the bowel wall undergo traction (e.g., due to food or bolus). There are seven subtypes of the 5HT receptors, among which 5HT4 and 5HT3 are the most important for peristalsis. 5HT4 drives 5HT effect on the gut and 5HT3 is responsible for the bowel sensation.[5]
- There are two mechanism of gross motility in colon including:[1]
Defecation
- The defecation process consist of three important stages including:[6]
- Filling of the rectum
- Sensation of rectum fullness
- Relaxation of pelvic floor muscles in a coordinated fashion
- Anal sphincters and puborectalis muscle are anatomical contributors of normal fecal consistency.
- Resting anal sphincter tone is due to both involuntary internal (70%) and voluntary external (30%) anal sphincters tone.
- Rectoanal inhibitory reflex (RAIR) consist of relaxing the internal anal sphincter in response to rectal distention due to flatus or stool. RAIR is completely regulated by the gut and is not controlled by peripheral or central nervous system. Presence of RAIR rules out Hirschsprung's disease as a differential diagnosis.[2]
- When stool enters in rectum, the internal sphincter is relaxed by reflex. If the defecation is inconvenient, the puborectalis muscle is contracted and external sphincter is closed. In case defecation is desired, the puborectalis muscle is voluntarily relaxed and external sphincter is opened. Therefore, defecation may be assisted with valsalva maneuver.[7]
Pathogenesis
- Primary constipation is caused by anorectal and colonic problems, while secondary constipation is caused by organic and metabolic diseases or medications.
Primary constipation
- Primary constipation is considered when the secondary causes of constipation are ruled out. Without any certain causes or alarm signs, empiric therapy with dietary fibers and laxatives is administered. If the laxative treatment is successful, there will be no need to additional work up.
- Colonic transit test is needed if further work up is necessary for constipation. The procedure consist of ingestion of marker-contained capsule and taking an abdominal X-ray after 120 h (5 days).[8]
- After locating and counting the markers, if more than 20% of markers remains within the colon, it is defined as slow transit disease.
- Normal-transit constipation
- The most common form of constipation referred to clinicians is normal transit constipation, which is also known as functional constipation.[9]
- Majority of the patients experience normal transit time and stool frequency. Numerous patients meet the criteria for irritable bowel syndrome with constipation (IBS-C) or psychological disorders.[10]
- Rome III criteria for functional constipation is presence of two or more than two of the followings for ≥ 3 months and onset ≥ 6 months before the diagnosis:[11]
- < 3 defecation per week
- Straining during defecation
- Lumpy or hard stool
- Sensation if incomplete emptying of rectum
- Sensation of in anorectal obstruction
- Manual evacuation need for defecation
- Most of the patients are cured with dietary fibers, osmotic laxatives, or enterokinetics.
- Slow-transit constipation
- Slow-transit constipation is consisted of significant decreased number of defecations, less than once a week and the majority of times involve young women.[12]
- The more severe form, called "colonic inertia", is the condition in which eating and prokinetics does not lead to increase in motor activity and HAPCs.[13]
- The slow-transit constipation is due to decreased number of interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) and alteration of myenteric plexus neurons which secretes substance P.[14][15]
- Hypoganglionosis, inflammatory neuropathy, and leiomyopathy are other causes of slow-transit constipation.
- Defecation disorder
- Straining and spending long times in toilet are the main findings in patients with defecation disorder.
- Patients with defecation disorder often have problems even with liquid and firm stools. Therefore, laxatives are not effective mostly.
- Anorectal manometery and balloon expulsion test are the gold-standard tests for diagnosing functional defecation disorder.[16]
- The majority of the functional defecation disorders are due to dyssynergia. Dyssynergia is an acquired condition due to disorganized toilet habits, pain during defecation, obstetrics and back injuries.[17]
- The primary defect in dyssynergia is lack of coordination among abdominal, rectoanal, and pelvic floor muscles contractions during defecation process.[17]
- Normal-transit constipation
Secondary constipation
- Most of medications can lead to constipation as a side effect. Therefore, a comprehensive history of medications is needed in every patients with constipation.[18][19][20][21][22]
| Group | Drug | Alternatives |
|---|---|---|
| Antihypertensives | Clonidine | |
| Calcium channel blockers | ||
| Ganglionic blockers | ||
| Antidepressants | Tricyclic antidepressants | |
| Cation-containing drugs | Oral iron supplementation |
|
| Aluminum-containing drugs | Sucralfate | |
| Antacids | ||
| Analgesics | Opiates |
|
| Cannabinoids | ||
| Anti-Parkinson |
| |
| Antiepileptic | ||
| Antipsychotic | ||
| Antihistamines |
| |
| Antispasmodics | ||
| Vinca alkaloids | ||
- Diseases that disturb the nervous system may lead to constipation, such as diabetes mellitus, autonomic neuropathy, Chagas' disease, and Hirschsprung's disease.
- Both hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia may lead to bowel movement disturbance and constipation.[23]
Genetics
- Genetic studies have shown the role of genetics in childhood constipation due to various pathogenesis.
- Genes involved in the pathogenesis of childhood constipation and related diseases are as following:[24]
Associated Conditions
Associated conditions with constipation are included:
- Diabetes mellitus
- Hypothyroidism
- Systemic sclerosis
- Parkinson's disease
- Depression
- Eating disorders
- Multiple drugs use
- Colon cancer
- External compression from malignant lesion
- Strictures: diverticular or postischemic
- Rectocele (if large)
- Postsurgical abnormalities
- Megacolon
- Anal fissure
- Hypercalcemia
- Hypokalemia
- Hypomagnesemia
- Uremia
- Heavy metal poisoning
- Myopathies
- Parkinson's disease
- Spinal cord injury or tumor
- Cerebrovascular disease
- Depression
- Degenerative joint disease
- Autonomic neuropathy
- Cognitive impairment
- Immobility
- Cardiac disease
Gross Pathology
- On gross pathology, there is no finding related to constipation.
Microscopic Pathology
- On microscopic histopathological analysis, there is no finding related to constipation.
- Chronic use of the laxative may lead to melanosis coli, which is identified by hyperpigmentation and brownish discoloration of colonic mucosa.
- The primary microscopic histopathological finding in melanosis coli is brown granular pigment in lamina propria.
.jpg) |
 |
.jpg) |
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Sleisenger, Marvin (2010). Sleisenger and Fordtran's gastrointestinal and liver disease : pathophysiology, diagnosis, management. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN 9781437727678.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Andrews CN, Storr M (2011). "The pathophysiology of chronic constipation". Can J Gastroenterol. 25 Suppl B: 16B–21B. PMC 3206564. PMID 22114753.
- ↑ Southwell BR, Clarke MC, Sutcliffe J, Hutson JM (2009). "Colonic transit studies: normal values for adults and children with comparison of radiological and scintigraphic methods". Pediatr. Surg. Int. 25 (7): 559–72. doi:10.1007/s00383-009-2387-x. PMID 19488763.
- ↑ Dinning PG, Smith TK, Scott SM (2009). "Pathophysiology of colonic causes of chronic constipation". Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 21 Suppl 2: 20–30. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2982.2009.01401.x. PMC 2982774. PMID 19824935.
- ↑ Grundy D, Al-Chaer ED, Aziz Q, Collins SM, Ke M, Taché Y, Wood JD (2006). "Fundamentals of neurogastroenterology: basic science". Gastroenterology. 130 (5): 1391–411. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2005.11.060. PMID 16678554.
- ↑ Bharucha AE (2006). "Pelvic floor: anatomy and function". Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 18 (7): 507–19. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2982.2006.00803.x. PMID 16771766.
- ↑ Rao SS (2010). "Advances in diagnostic assessment of fecal incontinence and dyssynergic defecation". Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 8 (11): 910–9. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2010.06.004. PMC 2964406. PMID 20601142.
- ↑ Rao SS, Camilleri M, Hasler WL, Maurer AH, Parkman HP, Saad R, Scott MS, Simren M, Soffer E, Szarka L (2011). "Evaluation of gastrointestinal transit in clinical practice: position paper of the American and European Neurogastroenterology and Motility Societies". Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 23 (1): 8–23. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2982.2010.01612.x. PMID 21138500.
- ↑ Longstreth GF, Thompson WG, Chey WD, Houghton LA, Mearin F, Spiller RC (2006). "Functional bowel disorders". Gastroenterology. 130 (5): 1480–91. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2005.11.061. PMID 16678561.
- ↑ Ashraf W, Park F, Lof J, Quigley EM (1996). "An examination of the reliability of reported stool frequency in the diagnosis of idiopathic constipation". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 91 (1): 26–32. PMID 8561138.
- ↑ Cash BD, Chey WD (2005). "Review article: The role of serotonergic agents in the treatment of patients with primary chronic constipation". Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 22 (11–12): 1047–60. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2005.02696.x. PMID 16305718.
- ↑ Preston DM, Lennard-Jones JE (1986). "Severe chronic constipation of young women: 'idiopathic slow transit constipation'". Gut. 27 (1): 41–8. PMC 1433176. PMID 3949236.
- ↑ Bassotti G, Roberto GD, Sediari L, Morelli A (2004). "Toward a definition of colonic inertia". World J. Gastroenterol. 10 (17): 2465–7. PMC 4572142. PMID 15300885.
- ↑ He CL, Burgart L, Wang L, Pemberton J, Young-Fadok T, Szurszewski J, Farrugia G (2000). "Decreased interstitial cell of cajal volume in patients with slow-transit constipation". Gastroenterology. 118 (1): 14–21. PMID 10611149.
- ↑ Tzavella K, Riepl RL, Klauser AG, Voderholzer WA, Schindlbeck NE, Müller-Lissner SA (1996). "Decreased substance P levels in rectal biopsies from patients with slow transit constipation". Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 8 (12): 1207–11. PMID 8980942.
- ↑ Rao SS, Ozturk R, Laine L (2005). "Clinical utility of diagnostic tests for constipation in adults: a systematic review". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 100 (7): 1605–15. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2005.41845.x. PMID 15984989.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Rao SS (2008). "Dyssynergic defecation and biofeedback therapy". Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 37 (3): 569–86, viii. doi:10.1016/j.gtc.2008.06.011. PMC 2575098. PMID 18793997.
- ↑ Fosnes GS, Lydersen S, Farup PG (2011). "Constipation and diarrhoea - common adverse drug reactions? A cross sectional study in the general population". BMC Clin Pharmacol. 11: 2. doi:10.1186/1472-6904-11-2. PMC 3049147. PMID 21332973.
- ↑ Simonson W, Han LF, Davidson HE (2011). "Hypertension treatment and outcomes in US nursing homes: results from the US National Nursing Home Survey". J Am Med Dir Assoc. 12 (1): 44–9. doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2010.02.009. PMID 21194659.
- ↑ Dolder C, Nelson M, Stump A (2010). "Pharmacological and clinical profile of newer antidepressants: implications for the treatment of elderly patients". Drugs Aging. 27 (8): 625–40. doi:10.2165/11537140-000000000-00000. PMID 20658791.
- ↑ Talley NJ, Jones M, Nuyts G, Dubois D (2003). "Risk factors for chronic constipation based on a general practice sample". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 98 (5): 1107–11. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2003.07465.x. PMID 12809835.
- ↑ Rosti G, Gatti A, Costantini A, Sabato AF, Zucco F (2010). "Opioid-related bowel dysfunction: prevalence and identification of predictive factors in a large sample of Italian patients on chronic treatment". Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 14 (12): 1045–50. PMID 21375137.
- ↑ Takahashi T, Matsuda K, Kono T, Pappas TN (2003). "Inhibitory effects of hyperglycemia on neural activity of the vagus in rats". Intensive Care Med. 29 (2): 309–11. doi:10.1007/s00134-002-1580-3. PMID 12594591.
- ↑ Peeters B, Benninga MA, Hennekam RC (2011). "Childhood constipation; an overview of genetic studies and associated syndromes". Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 25 (1): 73–88. doi:10.1016/j.bpg.2010.12.005. PMID 21382580.