Congestive heart failure clinical assessment: Difference between revisions
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(/* 2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline/2009 ACC/AHA Focused Update and 2005 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Heart Failure in the Adult (DO NOT EDIT) {{cite journal| author=Yancy CW, Jessup M, Bozkurt B, Masoudi FA, Butler J, McBride PE et al.| title...) |
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The diagnosis of heart failure is classified as "definite" at a score of 8 to 12 points, "possible" at a score of 5 to 7 points, and "unlikely" at a score of 4 points or less. | The diagnosis of heart failure is classified as "definite" at a score of 8 to 12 points, "possible" at a score of 5 to 7 points, and "unlikely" at a score of 4 points or less. | ||
== 2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline | == 2017 ACC/AHA/HFSA Focused Update of the 2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure (DO NOT EDIT) <ref name="pmid23747642">{{cite journal| author=Yancy CW, Jessup M, Bozkurt B, Masoudi FA, Butler J, McBride PE et al.| title=2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2013 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=23747642 | doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2013.05.019 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23747642 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19324967">Jessup M, Abraham WT, Casey DE, Feldman AM, Francis GS, Ganiats TG et al. (2009) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19324967 2009 focused update: ACCF/AHA Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Heart Failure in Adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines: developed in collaboration with the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation.] ''Circulation'' 119 (14):1977-2016. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192064 DOI:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192064] PMID:[http://pubmed.gov/19324967 19324967]</ref>== | ||
===Initial and Serial Evaluation of the HF Patient (DO NOT EDIT)<ref name="pmid23747642">{{cite journal| author=Yancy CW, Jessup M, Bozkurt B, Masoudi FA, Butler J, McBride PE et al.| title=2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2013 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=23747642 | doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2013.05.019 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23747642 }} </ref>=== | ===Initial and Serial Evaluation of the HF Patient (DO NOT EDIT)<ref name="pmid23747642">{{cite journal| author=Yancy CW, Jessup M, Bozkurt B, Masoudi FA, Butler J, McBride PE et al.| title=2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2013 | volume= | issue= | pages= | pmid=23747642 | doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2013.05.019 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23747642 }} </ref>=== | ||
Revision as of 16:53, 16 October 2017
 |
Resident Survival Guide |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
Overview
There are several diagnostic criteria / algorithms that are used to diagnose heart failure including an algorithm from the ESC, Framingham study, and Boston.
Clinical Assessment
ESC Algorithm
The ESC algorithm weights the following parameters in establishing the diagnosis of heart failure:[1]
Influence Parameter |
Supports if present | Opposes if normal or absent |
|---|---|---|
| + - to some degree ++ - to intermediate degree +++ - to high degree | ||
| Compatible symptoms | ++ | ++ |
| Compatible signs | ++ | + |
| Cardiac dysfunction on echocardiography |
+++ | +++ |
| Response of symptoms or signs to therapy |
+++ | ++ |
| ECG | ||
| Normal | ++ | |
| Abnormal | ++ | + |
| Dysrhythmia | +++ | + |
| Laboratory | ||
| BNP > 400 pg/mL and/or NT-proBNP > 2000 pg/mL |
+++ | + |
| BNP < 100 pg/mL and NT-proBNP < 400 pg/mL |
+ | +++ |
| Hyponatraemia | + | + |
| Renal dysfunction | + | + |
| Mild elevations of troponin | + | + |
| Chest X-ray | ||
| Pulmonary congestion | +++ | + |
| Reduced exercise capacity | +++ | ++ |
| Abnormal pulmonary function tests | + | + |
| Abnormal haemodynamics at rest | +++ | ++ |
Framingham Criteria
Major Criteria
- Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea
- Jugular vein distention
- Rales
- Radiographic cardiomegaly
- Acute pulmonary edema
- Third heart sound (S3)
- Central venous pressure > 16 cm H2O
- Circulation time ≥ 25 sec
- Hepatojugular reflux
- Pulmonary edema
- Visceral congestion
- Cardiomegaly at autopsy
- Weight loss ≥ 4.5 kg in 5 days in response to treatment of heart failure
Minor Criteria
- Bilateral ankle edema
- Nocturnal cough
- Dyspnea on ordinary exertion
- Hepatomegaly
- Pleural effusion
- 30% decrease in baseline vital capacity
- Tachycardia
Boston Criteria of Congestive Heart Failure
Category I: History
- Rest dyspnea 4 points
- Orthopnea 4 points
- Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea 3 points
- Dyspnea on walking on level ground 2 points
- Dyspnea on climbing 1 point
Category II: Physical Examination
- Heart rate abnormality (1 point if 91 to 110 bpm; if >110 bpm, 2 points)
- Jugular venous pressure elevation (2 points if >6 cm H2O; 3 points if >6 cm H2O and hepatomegaly or edema)
- Lung crackles (1 point if basilar; 2 points if more than basilar)
- Wheezing 3 points
- Third heart sound 3 points
Category III: Chest Radiography
- Alveolar pulmonary edema 4 points
- Interstitial pulmonary edema 3 points
- Bilateral pleural effusion 3 points
- Cardiothoracic ratio >0.50 (posteroanterior projection) 3 points
- Upper zone flow redistribution 2 points
No more than 4 points are allowed from each of three categories; hence the composite score (the sum of the subtotal from each category) has a possible maximum of 12 points.
The diagnosis of heart failure is classified as "definite" at a score of 8 to 12 points, "possible" at a score of 5 to 7 points, and "unlikely" at a score of 4 points or less.
2017 ACC/AHA/HFSA Focused Update of the 2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure (DO NOT EDIT) [2][3]
Initial and Serial Evaluation of the HF Patient (DO NOT EDIT)[2]
| Class I |
| "1. A thorough history and physical examination should be obtained/performed in patients presenting with HF to identify cardiac and noncardiac disorders or behaviors that might cause or accelerate the development or progression of HF. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "2. In patients with idiopathic DCM, a 3-generational family history should be obtained to aid in establishing the diagnosis of familial DCM. (Level of Evidence: C ) " |
| "3. Volume status and vital signs should be assessed at each patient encounter. This includes serial assessment of weight, as well as estimates of jugular venous pressure and the presence of peripheral edema or orthopnea.[4][5] (Level of Evidence: B ) " |
| "4. Initial laboratory evaluation of patients presenting with HF should include complete blood count, urinalysis, serum electrolytes (including calcium and magnesium), blood urea nitrogen, serum creatinine, glucose, fasting lipid profile, liver function tests, and thyroid-stimulating hormone. Serial monitoring, when indicated, should include serum electrolytes and renal function. A 12-lead ECG should be performed initially on all patients presenting with HF. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "5. In ambulatory patients with dyspnea, measurement of BNP or N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) is useful to support clinical decision making regarding the diagnosis of HF, especially in the setting of clinical uncertainty.[6][7](Level of Evidence: A), Measurement of BNP or N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) is useful for establishing prognosis or disease severity in chronic HF.[8][9][10] (Level of Evidence: A) " |
| "6. Patients with suspected or new-onset HF, or those presenting with acute decompensated HF, should undergo a chest x-ray to assess heart size and pulmonary congestion and to detect alternative cardiac, pulmonary, and other diseases that may cause or contribute to the patient’s symptoms. A 2-dimensional echocardiogram with Doppler should be performed during initial evaluation of patients presenting with HF to assess ventricular function, size, wall thickness, wall motion, and valve function. Repeat measurement of EF and measurement of the severity of structural remodeling are useful to provide information in patients with HF who have had a significant change in clinical status; who have experienced or recovered from a clinical event; or who have received treatment, including GDMT, that might have had a significant effect on cardiac function; or who may be candidates for device therapy. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "7. Invasive hemodynamic monitoring with a pulmonary artery catheter should be performed to guide therapy in patients who have respiratory distress or clinical evidence of impaired perfusion in whom the adequacy or excess of intracardiac filling pressures cannot be determined from clinical assessment. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| Class III (No Benefit) |
| "1. Routine repeat measurement of LV function assessment in the absence of clinical status change or treatment interventions should not be performed.[11][12](Level of Evidence: B) " |
| "2. Routine use of invasive hemodynamic monitoring is not recommended in normotensive patients with acute decompensated HF and congestion with symptomatic response to diuretics and vasodilators.[13](Level of Evidence: B) " |
| Class III (harm) |
| "1. Endomyocardial biopsy should not be performed in the routine evaluation of patients with HF. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| Class IIa |
| "1. Validated multivariable risk scores can be useful to estimate subsequent risk of mortality in ambulatory or hospitalized patients with HF.[14][15] (Level of Evidence: B) " |
| "2. Screening for hemochromatosis or HIV is reasonable in selected patients who present with HF.[16](Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "3. Diagnostic tests for rheumatologic diseases, amyloidosis, or pheochromocytoma are reasonable inpatients presenting with HF in whom there is a clinical suspicion of these diseases.(Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "4. BNP or N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP)-guided HF therapy can be useful to achieve optimal dosing of GDMT in select clinically euvolemic patients followed in a well-structured HF disease management program.[17][18](Level of Evidence: B) " |
| "5. Noninvasive imaging to detect myocardial ischemia and viability is reasonable in patients presenting with de novo HF who have known CAD and no angina unless the patient is not eligible for revascularization of any kind. Radionuclide ventriculography or magnetic resonance imaging can be useful to assess LVEF and volume when echocardiography is inadequate. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "6. Viability assessment is reasonable in select situations when planning revascularization in HF patients with CAD.[19][20](Level of Evidence: B) " |
| "7. Magnetic resonance imaging is reasonable when assessing myocardial infiltrative processes or scar burden.[21][22](Level of Evidence: B) " |
| "8. Invasive hemodynamic monitoring can be useful for carefully selected patients with acute HF who have persistent symptoms despite empiric adjustment of standard therapies and a. whose fluid status, perfusion, or systemic or pulmonary vascular resistance is uncertain; b. whose systolic pressure remains low, or is associated with symptoms, despite initial therapy; c. whose renal function is worsening with therapy; d. who require parenteral vasoactive agents; or e. who may need consideration for MCS or transplantation.(Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "9. When ischemia may be contributing to HF, coronary arteriography is reasonable for patients eligible for revascularization.(Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "10. Endomyocardial biopsy can be useful in patients presenting with HF when a specific diagnosis is suspected that would influence therapy.(Level of Evidence: C) " |
| Class IIb |
| "1. The usefulness of serial measurement of BNP or N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) to reduce hospitalization or mortality in patients with HF is not well established.[17][18](Level of Evidence: B), Measurement of other clinically available tests such as biomarkers of myocardial injury or fibrosis may be considered for additive risk stratification in patients with chronic HF. [23][24](Level of Evidence: B)" |
2009 ACC/AHA Focused Update and 2005 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult (DO NOT EDIT) [25][3]
Initial Clinical Assessment of Patients Presenting With Heart Failure (DO NOT EDIT) [25][3]
| Class I |
| "1. A thorough history and physical examination should be obtained/performed in patients presenting with HF to identify cardiac and noncardiac disorders or behaviors that might cause or accelerate the development or progression of HF. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "2. A careful history of current and past use of alcohol, illicit drugs, current or past standard or “alternative therapies,” and chemotherapy drugs should be obtained from patients presenting with HF. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "3. In patients presenting with HF, initial assessment should be made of the patient’s ability to perform routine and desired activities of daily living. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "4. Initial examination of patients presenting with HF should include assessment of the patient’s volume status, orthostatic blood pressure changes, measurement of weight and height, and calculation of body mass index. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "5. Initial laboratory evaluation of patients presenting with HF should include complete blood count, urinalysis, serum electrolytes (including calcium and magnesium), blood urea nitrogen, serum creatinine, fasting blood glucose (glycohemoglobin), lipid profile, liver function tests, and thyroid-stimulating hormone. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "6. Twelve-lead electrocardiogram and chest radiograph (PA and lateral) should be performed initially in all patients presenting with HF. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "7. Two-dimensional echocardiography with Doppler should be performed during initial evaluation of patients presenting with HF to assess LVEF, LV size, wall thickness, and valve function. Radionuclideventriculography can be performed to assess LVEF and volumes. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "8. Coronary arteriography should be performed in patients presenting with HF who have angina or significant ischemia unless the patient is not eligible for revascularization of any kind. (Level of Evidence: B) " |
| Class III (No Benefit) |
| "1. Endomyocardial biopsy should not be performed in the routine evaluation of patients with HF.[26] (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "2. Routine use of signal-averaged electrocardiography is not recommended for the evaluation of patients presenting with HF. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "3. Routine measurement of circulating levels of neurohormones (e.g., norepinephrine or endothelin) is not recommended for patients presenting with HF. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| Class IIa |
| "1. Coronary arteriography is reasonable for patients presenting with HF who have chest pain that may or may not be of cardiac origin who have not had evaluation of their coronary anatomy and who have no contraindications to coronary revascularization. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "2. Coronary arteriography is reasonable for patients presenting with HF who have known or suspected coronary artery disease but who do not have angina unless the patient is not eligible for revascularization of any kind. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "3. Noninvasive imaging to detect myocardial ischemia and viability is reasonable in patients presenting with HF who have known coronary artery disease and no angina unless the patient is not eligible for revascularization of any kind. (Level of Evidence: B) " |
| "4. Maximal exercise testing with or without measurement of respiratory gas exchange and/or blood oxygen saturation is reasonable in patients presenting with HF to help determine whether HF is the cause of exercise limitation when the contribution of HF is uncertain. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "5. Maximal exercise testing with measurement of respiratory gas exchange is reasonable to identify high-risk patients presenting with HF who are candidates for cardiac transplantation or other advanced treatments. (Level of Evidence: B) " |
| "6. Screening for hemochromatosis, sleep-disturbed breathing, or human immunodeficiency virus is reasonable in selected patients who present with HF. (Level of Evidence: C)" |
| "7. Diagnostic tests for rheumatologic diseases, amyloidosis, or pheochromocytoma are reasonable in patients presenting with HF in whom there is a clinical suspicion of these diseases. (Level of Evidence: C)" |
| "8. Endomyocardial biopsy can be useful in patients presenting with HF when a specific diagnosis is suspected that would influence therapy. (Level of Evidence: C)" |
| "9. Measurement of natriuretic peptides (BNP and NT-proBNP) can be useful in the evaluation of patients presenting in the urgent care setting in whom the clinical diagnosis of HF is uncertain. Measurement of natriuretic peptides (BNP and NT-proBNP) can be useful in risk stratification. (Level of Evidence: A)" |
| Class IIb |
| "1. Noninvasive imaging may be considered to define the likelihood of coronary artery disease in patients with HF and LV dysfunction. (Level of Evidence: C)" |
| "2. Holter monitoring might be considered in patients presenting with HF who have a history of MI and are being considered for electrophysiologic study to document VT inducibility. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
Serial Clinical Assessment of Patients Presenting With Heart Failure (DO NOT EDIT)[25][3]
| Class I |
| "1. Assessment should be made at each visit of the ability of a patient with HF to perform routine and desired activities of daily living. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "2. Assessment should be made at each visit of the volume status and weight of a patient with HF. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| "3. Careful history of current use of alcohol, tobacco, illicit drugs, “alternative therapies,” and chemotherapy drugs, as well as diet and sodium intake, should be obtained at each visit of a patient with HF. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| Class IIa |
| "1. Repeat measurement of ejection fraction and the severity of structural remodeling can provide useful information in patients with heart failur who have had a change in clinical status or who have experienced or recovered from a clinical event or received treatment that might have had a significant effect on cardiac function. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
| Class IIb |
| "1. The value of serial measurements of BNP to guide therapy for patients with HF is not well established. (Level of Evidence: C) " |
References
- ↑ [ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure 2008 http://www.escardio.org/guidelines-surveys/esc-guidelines/GuidelinesDocuments/guidelines-HF-FT.pdf] European Heart Journal (2008) 29, 2388–2442, doi:10.1016/j.ejheart.2008.08.005
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Yancy CW, Jessup M, Bozkurt B, Masoudi FA, Butler J, McBride PE; et al. (2013). "2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure: A Report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines". J Am Coll Cardiol. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2013.05.019. PMID 23747642.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Jessup M, Abraham WT, Casey DE, Feldman AM, Francis GS, Ganiats TG et al. (2009) 2009 focused update: ACCF/AHA Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Heart Failure in Adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines: developed in collaboration with the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. Circulation 119 (14):1977-2016. DOI:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192064 PMID:19324967
- ↑ Butman SM, Ewy GA, Standen JR, Kern KB, Hahn E (1993). "Bedside cardiovascular examination in patients with severe chronic heart failure: importance of rest or inducible jugular venous distension". J Am Coll Cardiol. 22 (4): 968–74. PMID 8409071.
- ↑ Stevenson LW, Perloff JK (1989). "The limited reliability of physical signs for estimating hemodynamics in chronic heart failure". JAMA. 261 (6): 884–8. PMID 2913385.
- ↑ Costello-Boerrigter LC, Boerrigter G, Redfield MM, Rodeheffer RJ, Urban LH, Mahoney DW; et al. (2006). "Amino-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide and B-type natriuretic peptide in the general community: determinants and detection of left ventricular dysfunction". J Am Coll Cardiol. 47 (2): 345–53. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2005.09.025. PMC 2647136. PMID 16412859.
- ↑ Vasan RS, Benjamin EJ, Larson MG, Leip EP, Wang TJ, Wilson PW; et al. (2002). "Plasma natriuretic peptides for community screening for left ventricular hypertrophy and systolic dysfunction: the Framingham heart study". JAMA. 288 (10): 1252–9. PMID 12215132.
- ↑ Tang WH, Girod JP, Lee MJ, Starling RC, Young JB, Van Lente F; et al. (2003). "Plasma B-type natriuretic peptide levels in ambulatory patients with established chronic symptomatic systolic heart failure". Circulation. 108 (24): 2964–6. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000106903.98196.B6. PMID 14662703.
- ↑ Berger R, Huelsman M, Strecker K, Bojic A, Moser P, Stanek B; et al. (2002). "B-type natriuretic peptide predicts sudden death in patients with chronic heart failure". Circulation. 105 (20): 2392–7. PMID 12021226.
- ↑ Neuhold S, Huelsmann M, Strunk G, Stoiser B, Struck J, Morgenthaler NG; et al. (2008). "Comparison of copeptin, B-type natriuretic peptide, and amino-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide in patients with chronic heart failure: prediction of death at different stages of the disease". J Am Coll Cardiol. 52 (4): 266–72. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2008.03.050. PMID 18634981.
- ↑ Beller GA (2012). "Tests that may be overused or misused in cardiology: the Choosing Wisely campaign". J Nucl Cardiol. 19 (3): 401–3. doi:10.1007/s12350-012-9569-y. PMID 22547398.
- ↑ American College of Cardiology Foundation Appropriate Use Criteria Task Force. American Society of Echocardiography. American Heart Association. American Society of Nuclear Cardiology. Heart Failure Society of America. Heart Rhythm Society; et al. (2011). "ACCF/ASE/AHA/ASNC/HFSA/HRS/SCAI/SCCM/SCCT/SCMR 2011 Appropriate Use Criteria for Echocardiography. A Report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Appropriate Use Criteria Task Force, American Society of Echocardiography, American Heart Association, American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, Heart Failure Society of America, Heart Rhythm Society, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Critical Care Medicine, Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography, Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance American College of Chest Physicians". J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 24 (3): 229–67. doi:10.1016/j.echo.2010.12.008. PMID 21338862.
- ↑ Binanay C, Califf RM, Hasselblad V, O'Connor CM, Shah MR, Sopko G; et al. (2005). "Evaluation study of congestive heart failure and pulmonary artery catheterization effectiveness: the ESCAPE trial". JAMA. 294 (13): 1625–33. doi:10.1001/jama.294.13.1625. PMID 16204662.
- ↑ Aaronson KD, Schwartz JS, Chen TM, Wong KL, Goin JE, Mancini DM (1997). "Development and prospective validation of a clinical index to predict survival in ambulatory patients referred for cardiac transplant evaluation". Circulation. 95 (12): 2660–7. PMID 9193435.
- ↑ Wedel H, McMurray JJ, Lindberg M, Wikstrand J, Cleland JG, Cornel JH; et al. (2009). "Predictors of fatal and non-fatal outcomes in the Controlled Rosuvastatin Multinational Trial in Heart Failure (CORONA): incremental value of apolipoprotein A-1, high-sensitivity C-reactive peptide and N-terminal pro B-type natriuretic peptide". Eur J Heart Fail. 11 (3): 281–91. doi:10.1093/eurjhf/hfn046. PMC 2645061. PMID 19168876.
- ↑ Okonko DO, Mandal AK, Missouris CG, Poole-Wilson PA (2011). "Disordered iron homeostasis in chronic heart failure: prevalence, predictors, and relation to anemia, exercise capacity, and survival". J Am Coll Cardiol. 58 (12): 1241–51. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2011.04.040. PMID 21903058.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Januzzi JL, Rehman SU, Mohammed AA, Bhardwaj A, Barajas L, Barajas J; et al. (2011). "Use of amino-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide to guide outpatient therapy of patients with chronic left ventricular systolic dysfunction". J Am Coll Cardiol. 58 (18): 1881–9. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2011.03.072. PMID 22018299.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Lainchbury JG, Troughton RW, Strangman KM, Frampton CM, Pilbrow A, Yandle TG; et al. (2009). "N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide-guided treatment for chronic heart failure: results from the BATTLESCARRED (NT-proBNP-Assisted Treatment To Lessen Serial Cardiac Readmissions and Death) trial". J Am Coll Cardiol. 55 (1): 53–60. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2009.02.095. PMID 20117364. Review in: Ann Intern Med. 2010 Apr 20;152(8):JC4-4
- ↑ Rizzello V, Poldermans D, Biagini E, Schinkel AF, Boersma E, Boccanelli A; et al. (2009). "Prognosis of patients with ischaemic cardiomyopathy after coronary revascularisation: relation to viability and improvement in left ventricular ejection fraction". Heart. 95 (15): 1273–7. doi:10.1136/hrt.2008.163972. PMID 19443475.
- ↑ Senior R, Kaul S, Lahiri A (1999). "Myocardial viability on echocardiography predicts long-term survival after revascularization in patients with ischemic congestive heart failure". J Am Coll Cardiol. 33 (7): 1848–54. PMID 10362184.
- ↑ Kwon DH, Halley CM, Carrigan TP, Zysek V, Popovic ZB, Setser R; et al. (2009). "Extent of left ventricular scar predicts outcomes in ischemic cardiomyopathy patients with significantly reduced systolic function: a delayed hyperenhancement cardiac magnetic resonance study". JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2 (1): 34–44. doi:10.1016/j.jcmg.2008.09.010. PMID 19356530.
- ↑ Syed IS, Glockner JF, Feng D, Araoz PA, Martinez MW, Edwards WD; et al. (2010). "Role of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in the detection of cardiac amyloidosis". JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 3 (2): 155–64. doi:10.1016/j.jcmg.2009.09.023. PMID 20159642.
- ↑ Horwich TB, Patel J, MacLellan WR, Fonarow GC (2003). "Cardiac troponin I is associated with impaired hemodynamics, progressive left ventricular dysfunction, and increased mortality rates in advanced heart failure". Circulation. 108 (7): 833–8. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000084543.79097.34. PMID 12912820.
- ↑ Lok DJ, Van Der Meer P, de la Porte PW, Lipsic E, Van Wijngaarden J, Hillege HL; et al. (2010). "Prognostic value of galectin-3, a novel marker of fibrosis, in patients with chronic heart failure: data from the DEAL-HF study". Clin Res Cardiol. 99 (5): 323–8. doi:10.1007/s00392-010-0125-y. PMC 2858799. PMID 20130888.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Hunt SA, Abraham WT, Chin MH, Feldman AM, Francis GS, Ganiats TG, Jessup M, Konstam MA, Mancini DM, Michl K, Oates JA, Rahko PS, Silver MA, Stevenson LW, Yancy CW, Antman EM, Smith SC Jr, Adams CD, Anderson JL, Faxon DP, Fuster V, Halperin JL, Hiratzka LF, Jacobs AK, Nishimura R, Ornato JP, Page RL, Riegel B; American College of Cardiology; American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines; American College of Chest Physicians; International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation; Heart Rhythm Society. ACC/AHA 2005 Guideline Update for the Diagnosis and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Update the 2001 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure): developed in collaboration with the American College of Chest Physicians and the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: endorsed by the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation. 2005 Sep 20; 112(12): e154-235. Epub 2005 Sep 13. PMID 16160202
- ↑ Cooper LT, Baughman KL, Feldman AM, Frustaci A, Jessup M, Kuhl U et al. (2007) The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology. Circulation 116 (19):2216-33. DOI:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.186093 PMID: 17959655