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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: José Eduardo Riceto Loyola Junior, M.D.[2]
Overview
Claudication is the description of cramping muscle pain that occurs after a certain degree of exercise and is relieved by rest. Claudication is classically caused by peripheral arterial disease, in which an obstruction in artery of the lower limbs can lead to an insufficient blood flow which is not enough to supply the demands from the muscles of that region, but there are other conditions that can mimic its symptoms such as nerve root compression, spinal stenosis, hip arthritis, symptomatic Baker's cyst, venous claudication and chronic compartment syndrome.
Causes
Life Threatening Causes
There are no life-threatening causes, which include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.
Common Causes
- Peripheral arterial disease
- Venous claudication
- Arterial thromboembolism
- Cholesterol embolism
- Vasculitis
- Nerve root compression (radiculopathy, plexopathy)
- Peripheral neuropathy
- Lumbar canal stenosis (pseudoclaudication)
- Spinal stenosis
- Arthritis/Connective tissue disease
- Baker's cyst
- Muscle strain
- Ligament/tendon injury
- Chronic compartment syndrome [1]
Diagnosis
Shown below is an algorithm summarizing the diagnosis of claudication according the the guidelines
Treatment
Shown below is an algorithm summarizing the diagnosis of claudication according the the British Medical Journal guidelines.[2]
Evaluate affected limb - check for color and trophic changes, early ulcerations, skin temperature, capillary refill time, pulses at the groin and popliteal fossa, and the pedal pulses. | |||||||||||||||||||||||
If peripheral arterial disease is suspected: Screening test: ankle-brachial index (systolic blood pressure of the dorsalis pedis, posterior tibialis, or fibularis artery is obtained with a handheld Doppler and divided by the higher of the two brachial pressures) - if <0.9 confirms peripheral arterial disease. | |||||||||||||||||||||||
Secondary prevention for coronary arterial disease: start aspirin 75mg daily and statins | Control cardiovascular risk factors (hyperglycemia, obesity, dyslipidemia, smoking) | Advise the patient to exercise for 30 minutes twice daily to increase pain-free walking and total walking distance by stimulating collateral blood flow) | |||||||||||||||||||||
Do's
- The content in this section is in bullet points.
Don'ts
- The content in this section is in bullet points.
References
- ↑ Simon RW, Simon-Schulthess A, Simon-Schulthess A, Amann-Vesti BR (2007). "Intermittent claudication". BMJ. 334 (7596): 746. doi:10.1136/bmj.39036.624306.68. PMC 1847882. PMID 17413176.
- ↑ Simon RW, Simon-Schulthess A, Simon-Schulthess A, Amann-Vesti BR (2007). "Intermittent claudication". BMJ. 334 (7596): 746. doi:10.1136/bmj.39036.624306.68. PMC 1847882. PMID 17413176.
COVID
Overview
COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome (also known as PIMS-TS - pediatric inflammatory multisystem syndrome temporally with SARS-CoV2 infection or MIS-C - multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children) is an uncommon clinical entity caused by SARS-CoV2 and seen mostly on children. It presents with: fever > 3 days and elevated markers of inflammation and 2 of the following 5 criteria: rash or conjunctivitis; hypotension or shock; myocardial dysfunction, pericarditis, valvulitis or coronary abnormalities; evidence of coagulopathy and/or acute gastrointestinal problems along with evidence of COVID-19. It seems to be a severe form of COVID-19 in children presenting with symptoms that can be challenging to differentiate from other pediatric infectious diseases such as toxic shock syndrome and Kawasaki disease. The pathophysiology of this form of SARS-CoV2 infection remains unknown.
Historical Perspective
- Reports of a new febrile pediatric entity began to appear in late April 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Western Europe, characterized by systemic hyperinflammation, abdominal pain with gastrointestinal symptoms and multiorgan involvement affecting especially the myocardium causing cardiogenic shock which reminded the physicians of Kawasaki disease;[1]
- Cases of children with such symptoms were quickly identified in the New York City area, which was then the most heavily affected city in the U.S. by the COVID-19 pandemic;[1]
- A report of 8 cases from Evelina London Children's Hospital was published on 6 May 2020, showing very prominent markers of inflammation such as ferritin, D-dimers, triglycerides, elevated cardiac enzymes, high NT-pro-BNP levels and troponin, being empirically treated with IVIG;[1]
- In 22 May, an article from the Journal of Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society addressed some of the similarities and differences of this new entity with Kawasaki's disease, noting that the demographics affected was significantly different, as it was not seen in Asia despite the pandemic also affecting such countries, but it was affecting mostly children of African ethnicity. The author also differentiated some of the laboratory findings, resembling the macrophage activation syndrome and not Kawasaki's disease.[1]
Classification of Disease Severity of COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome
- There is no established system for the classification of COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome.
Pathophysiology
- The exact pathophysiological mechanism of COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is unclear.
- Since there is a lag time between COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome appearance and COVID-19 infection (median time: 25 days)[2] it is suspected to be a post-infectious phenomenon related to IgG antibody-mediated enhancement of disease. There are two arguments that support this theory: the presence of IgG antibodies against SARS-CoV2 and the presence of the lag time between COVID-19 symptoms and COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome.[3]
- There is, however, another theory that states that it is still an acute viral presentation of the disease due to the fact that children presenting with such symptoms undergone exploratory laparotomy which found mesenteric adenitis, supporting GI infection. SARS-CoV2 is also known to easily infect enterocytes. Another interesting point to consider is that the worsening of illness has not been seen in patients with COVID-19 who are treated with convalescent plasma, which could have occurred if it was an antibody-mediated enhancement.[3]
- There is another hypothesis for the cytokine storm seen on children with COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome is originated from the known ability of coronaviruses to block type I and type III interferon responses, delaying the cytokine storm in patients that could not control the viral replication on earlier phases of the disease.[3]
Differentiating Any Disease from other disease
- Children who met criteria for COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome presented features that overlapped with the ones seen on Kawasaki's disease and toxic shock syndrome, such as conjunctival injection, oropharyngeal findings (red and/or cracked lips, strawberry tongue), rash, swollen and/or erythematous hands and feet, and cervical lymphadenopathy.[4]
- PCR tests for SARS-CoV-2 were positive in the minority of cases (26%), while the IgG antibody was positive in most patients (87%)[4] and it remains as the preferred laboratory test for differentiating such diseases;
- The first cases of COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome presented with: unrelenting fever (38–40°C), conjunctivitis, cutaneous rash, peripheral edema, extremity pain and remarkable gastrointestinal symptoms. Most didn't have any respiratory symptoms, and all progressed to warm vasoplegic shock, refractory to volume resuscitation demanding vasopressors for hemodynamic support.[5]
- Serum IL-6 level was elevated in most patients. IL-2R, IL-18, and CXCL 9 levels were elevated in all patients of a cohort and mildly increased IFN-γ and IL-8 levels in some.
- TNF-α, IL-1b, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 levels remained normal in one in a series of cases from New York City.[6]
Parameters | COVID-19-associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome (PIMS-TS) | Kawasaki Disease (KD) | Kawasaki Disease Shock (KDS) | Toxic Shock Syndrome (TSS) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age (median, IQR) | 9 (5.7-14) | 2.7 (1.4-4.7) | 3.8 (0.2-18) | 7.38 (2.4-15.4) |
Total white cell count (*10^9/L) | 17 (12-22) | 13.4 (10.5-17.3) | 12.1 (7.9-15.5) | 15.6 (7.5-20) |
Neutrophil count (*10^9/L) | 13 (10-19) | 7.2 (5.1-9.9) | 5.5 (3.2-10.3) | 16.4 (12-22) |
Lymphocyte count (*10^9/L) | 0.8 (0.5-1.5) | 2.8 (1.5-4.4) | 1.6 (1-2.5) | 0.63 (0.41, 1.13) |
Hemoglobin (g/L) | 92 (83-103) | 111.0 (105-119) | 107 (98-115) | 114 (98-130) |
Platelet number (10^9/L) | 151 (104-210) | 365.0 (288-462) | 235 (138-352) | 155 (92- 255) |
C-reactive protein (mg/L) | 229 (156-338) | 67.0(40-150) | 193 (83-237) | 201 (122, 317) |
ALT (IU/L) | 42 (26-95) | 42.0 (24-112) | 73 (34-107) | 30.00 (22.10, 49.25) |
Albumin (g/L) | 24 (21-27) | 38.0 (35-41) | 30 (27-35) | 27.00 (21.00, 31.00) |
Ferritin (ug/L) | 610 (359-1280) | 200 (143-243) | 301 (228-337) | - |
NT-Pro-BNP (pg/ml) | 788 (174-10548) | 41 (12-102) | 396 (57-1520) | - |
Troponin (ng/L) | 45 (8-294) | 10.0 (10-20) | 10 (10-30) | - |
D-dimer (ng/ml) | 3578 (2085- 8235) | 1650 (970-2660) | 2580 (1460- 2990) | - |
- Most patients presented with the following findings: elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate or C-reactive protein level, elevated ferritin level, lymphocytopenia, hypoalbuminemia, neutrophilia, elevated alanine aminotransferase level, anemia, thrombocytopenia prolonged INR, elevated d-dimer level, or elevated fibrinogen level.[2]
Epidemiology and Demographics
Age
- Children aged age over 5 years seem to have a worse prognosis than younger ones.[7]
- The median age found out in a study published by JAMA was 9 years.[4]
Gender
Race
Comorbidities
- Clinical evidence of association with underlying diseases is still scarce since it is a rare presentation of COVID-19 in children and teenagers.[8]
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Shulman, Stanford T. "Pediatric coronavirus disease-2019–associated multisystem inflammatory syndrome." Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society (2020).
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Feldstein, Leora R., et al. "Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in US children and adolescents." New England Journal of Medicine (2020).
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Rowley, Anne H. "Understanding SARS-CoV-2-related multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children." Nature Reviews Immunology (2020): 1-2.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Whittaker E, Bamford A, Kenny J, et al; PMIS-TS Study Group; EUCLIDS and PERFORM Consortia. Clinical and laboratory characteristics of 58 children with a pediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome temporally associated with SARSCoV-2. JAMA. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.10369
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Riphagen, Shelley, et al. "Hyperinflammatory shock in children during COVID-19 pandemic." The Lancet 395.10237 (2020): 1607-1608.
- ↑ Cheung, Eva W., et al. "Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome Related to COVID-19 in Previously Healthy Children and Adolescents in New York City." JAMA (2020).
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Pouletty, Marie, et al. "Paediatric multisystem inflammatory syndrome temporally associated with SARS-CoV-2 mimicking Kawasaki disease (Kawa-COVID-19): a multicentre cohort." Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases (2020).
- ↑ "World Health Organization - Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children and adolescents temporally related to COVID-19". WHO. 07/13/2020. Check date values in:
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(help)
Overview
Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) is a condition that causes inflammation of some parts of the body like heart, blood vessels, kidneys, digestive system, brain, skin, or eyes. According to recent evidence, it is suggested that children with MIS-C had antibodies against COVID-19 suggesting children had COVID-19 infection in the past. This syndrome appears to be similar in presentation to Kawasaki disease, hence also called Kawasaki -like a disease. It also shares features with staphylococcal and streptococcal toxic shock syndromes, bacterial sepsis, and macrophage activation syndromes.
Classification of Disease Severity of MIS-C
- Mild Disease
- Children with MIS-C fall under this category who-
- require minimal to no respiratory support.
- minimal to no organ injury
- normotensive
- Do not meet the criteria for ICU admission.
- Severe Disease
- Children with MIS-C fall under this category who-[1]
- have significant oxygen requirements (HFNC, BiPAP, mechanical ventilation).
- have a mild-severe organ injury and ventricular dysfunction.
- have a vasoactive requirement.
- meet the criteria for ICU admissions
Pathophysiology
- The excat pathophysiological mechanism of MIS-C is unclear. Since there is a lag time between MIS-C appearance and COVID-19 infection it is suspected to be causing by antibody dependent enhancement.
- Another hypothesis is that since coronavirus block type1 and type III interferons, it results in delayed cytokine response in children with initially high viral load or whose immune response is unable to control infections causing MIS-C. Therefore, IFN responses result in viral clearance when the viral load is low resulting in mild infection. However, when the viral load is high and /or immune system is not able to clear the virus, the cytokine storm result in multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C).[2]
- It is also suspected that since MIS-C presents predominantly with gastrointestinal manifestations, it replicates predominantly in the gastrointestinal tract.[2]
Differentiating Any Disease from other disease
It should be differentiated from following diseases
- Bacterial sepsis
- Staphylococcal and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome
- Kawasaki disease.
- More information about the differential diagnosis could be found here.
Epidemiology and Demographics
- According to a recent study among the 186 children with MIS-C, the rate of hospitalization was 12% between March 16 and April 15 and 88% between April 16 and May 20.
- 80% of the children were admitted to the intensive care unit and 20% of the children required mechanical ventilation.
- 4% of the children required extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.[3]
- The mortality rate among 186 children with MIS-C was 2%.[3]
Age
- Among the 186 children with MIS-C distribution of age group was[3]
- <1yr-7%
- 1-4yr-28%
- 5-9yr-25%
- 10-14yr-24%
- 15-20yr-16%.
Gender
- Among the 186 children with MIS-C
Comorbidities
- Children with MIS-C had following underlying comorbidities.[3]
- Clinically diagnosed Obesity-8%
- BMI-Based Obesity-29%
- Cardiovascular diasease-3%
- Respiratory disease-18%
- Autoimmune disease or immunocompromising condition-5%
Organ System Involved
- 71% of children had involvement of at least four organ systems.[3]
The most common organ system involved in MIS-C children among a total of 186 children were.[3]
- Gastrointestinal(92%)
- Cardiovascular(80%)
- Hematologic(76%)
- Mucocutaneous(74%)
- Pulmonary(70%)
- Historical perspective
External links
Classification | [[d:Lua error in Module:WikidataIB/sandbox at line 2057: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value). |D]] |
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External resources |
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Syncope classification | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Disease | Type | Sign | Symptom | ||
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Syncope is classified into three categories:
Disease Name | Age of Onset | Gender Preponderance | Signs/Symptoms | Imaging Feature(s) | Macroscopic Feature(s) | Microscopic Feature(s) | Laboratory Findings(s) | Other Feature(s) | ECG view |
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