COVID-19 risk factors: Difference between revisions
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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
Similar to all [[Viral disease|viral illnesses]], exposure is considered the most significant [[risk factor]] for [[infection]] with | Front-line [[health-care workers]] are at increased [[risk]] of having a positive Coronavirus disease 2019 ([[COVID-19]]) test. | ||
Similar to all [[Viral disease|viral illnesses]], exposure is considered the most significant [[risk factor]] for [[infection]] with [[SARS-CoV-2]] that causes [[COVID-19]]. [[Racial]] and [[ethnic]] minority groups are at increased risk of the infection. | |||
The most common risk factors associated with a severe form of the [[disease]] include [[Old age|elderly]] (those aged 60+), male sex, [[cardiovascular disease]], [[Diabetic|diabetes mellitus]], [[Chronic (medical)|chronic]] [[kidney disease]], [[COPD]], [[Hypertension|hypertension]], [[Cancer]], [[Solid organ]] [[transplantation]], [[Sickle cell disease]], and [[Obesity]] ([[BMI]] > 30). | |||
==Risk Factors== | ==Risk Factors== | ||
A recent study showed that front-line health-care workers were at increased risk of having a positive [[COVID-19]] test (adjusted [[HR]] 3·40, 95% CI 3·37–3·43). Adequacy of [[PPE]], clinical setting, and ethnic background were important factors for a higher positive test result in this group.<ref name="NguyenDrew2020">{{cite journal|last1=Nguyen|first1=Long H|last2=Drew|first2=David A|last3=Graham|first3=Mark S|last4=Joshi|first4=Amit D|last5=Guo|first5=Chuan-Guo|last6=Ma|first6=Wenjie|last7=Mehta|first7=Raaj S|last8=Warner|first8=Erica T|last9=Sikavi|first9=Daniel R|last10=Lo|first10=Chun-Han|last11=Kwon|first11=Sohee|last12=Song|first12=Mingyang|last13=Mucci|first13=Lorelei A|last14=Stampfer|first14=Meir J|last15=Willett|first15=Walter C|last16=Eliassen|first16=A Heather|last17=Hart|first17=Jaime E|last18=Chavarro|first18=Jorge E|last19=Rich-Edwards|first19=Janet W|last20=Davies|first20=Richard|last21=Capdevila|first21=Joan|last22=Lee|first22=Karla A|last23=Lochlainn|first23=Mary Ni|last24=Varsavsky|first24=Thomas|last25=Sudre|first25=Carole H|last26=Cardoso|first26=M Jorge|last27=Wolf|first27=Jonathan|last28=Spector|first28=Tim D|last29=Ourselin|first29=Sebastien|last30=Steves|first30=Claire J|last31=Chan|first31=Andrew T|last32=Albert|first32=Christine M.|last33=Andreotti|first33=Gabriella|last34=Bala|first34=Bijal|last35=Balasubramanian|first35=Bijal A.|last36=Beane-Freeman|first36=Laura E.|last37=Brownstein|first37=John S.|last38=Bruinsma|first38=Fiona J.|last39=Coresh|first39=Joe|last40=Costa|first40=Rui|last41=Cowan|first41=Annie N.|last42=Deka|first42=Anusila|last43=Deming-Halverson|first43=Sandra L.|last44=Elena Martinez|first44=Maria|last45=Ernst|first45=Michael E.|last46=Figueiredo|first46=Jane C.|last47=Fortuna|first47=Pedro|last48=Franks|first48=Paul W.|last49=Freeman|first49=Laura Beane|last50=Gardner|first50=Christopher D.|last51=Ghobrial|first51=Irene M.|last52=Haiman|first52=Christopher A.|last53=Hall|first53=Janet E.|last54=Kang|first54=Jae H.|last55=Kirpach|first55=Brenda|last56=Koenen|first56=Karestan C.|last57=Kubzansky|first57=Laura D.|last58=Lacey, Jr|first58=James V.|last59=Le Marchand|first59=Loic|last60=Lin|first60=Xihong|last61=Lutsey|first61=Pam|last62=Marinac|first62=Catherine R.|last63=Martinez|first63=Maria Elena|last64=Milne|first64=Roger L.|last65=Murray|first65=Anne M.|last66=Nash|first66=Denis|last67=Palmer|first67=Julie R.|last68=Patel|first68=Alpa V.|last69=Pierce|first69=Eric|last70=Robertson|first70=McKaylee M.|last71=Rosenberg|first71=Lynn|last72=Sandler|first72=Dale P.|last73=Schurman|first73=Shepherd H.|last74=Sewalk|first74=Kara|last75=Sharma|first75=Shreela V.|last76=Sidey-Gibbons|first76=Christopher J.|last77=Slevin|first77=Liz|last78=Smoller|first78=Jordan W..|last79=Steves|first79=Claire J.|last80=Tiirikainen|first80=Maarit I.|last81=Weiss|first81=Scott T.|last82=Wilkens|first82=Lynne R.|last83=Zhang|first83=Feng|title=Risk of COVID-19 among front-line health-care workers and the general community: a prospective cohort study|journal=The Lancet Public Health|year=2020|issn=24682667|doi=10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30164-X}}</ref> | A recent study showed that front-line health-care workers were at increased risk of having a positive [[COVID-19]] test (adjusted [[HR]] 3·40, 95% CI 3·37–3·43). Adequacy of [[PPE]], clinical setting, and ethnic background were important factors for a higher positive test result in this group.<ref name="NguyenDrew2020">{{cite journal|last1=Nguyen|first1=Long H|last2=Drew|first2=David A|last3=Graham|first3=Mark S|last4=Joshi|first4=Amit D|last5=Guo|first5=Chuan-Guo|last6=Ma|first6=Wenjie|last7=Mehta|first7=Raaj S|last8=Warner|first8=Erica T|last9=Sikavi|first9=Daniel R|last10=Lo|first10=Chun-Han|last11=Kwon|first11=Sohee|last12=Song|first12=Mingyang|last13=Mucci|first13=Lorelei A|last14=Stampfer|first14=Meir J|last15=Willett|first15=Walter C|last16=Eliassen|first16=A Heather|last17=Hart|first17=Jaime E|last18=Chavarro|first18=Jorge E|last19=Rich-Edwards|first19=Janet W|last20=Davies|first20=Richard|last21=Capdevila|first21=Joan|last22=Lee|first22=Karla A|last23=Lochlainn|first23=Mary Ni|last24=Varsavsky|first24=Thomas|last25=Sudre|first25=Carole H|last26=Cardoso|first26=M Jorge|last27=Wolf|first27=Jonathan|last28=Spector|first28=Tim D|last29=Ourselin|first29=Sebastien|last30=Steves|first30=Claire J|last31=Chan|first31=Andrew T|last32=Albert|first32=Christine M.|last33=Andreotti|first33=Gabriella|last34=Bala|first34=Bijal|last35=Balasubramanian|first35=Bijal A.|last36=Beane-Freeman|first36=Laura E.|last37=Brownstein|first37=John S.|last38=Bruinsma|first38=Fiona J.|last39=Coresh|first39=Joe|last40=Costa|first40=Rui|last41=Cowan|first41=Annie N.|last42=Deka|first42=Anusila|last43=Deming-Halverson|first43=Sandra L.|last44=Elena Martinez|first44=Maria|last45=Ernst|first45=Michael E.|last46=Figueiredo|first46=Jane C.|last47=Fortuna|first47=Pedro|last48=Franks|first48=Paul W.|last49=Freeman|first49=Laura Beane|last50=Gardner|first50=Christopher D.|last51=Ghobrial|first51=Irene M.|last52=Haiman|first52=Christopher A.|last53=Hall|first53=Janet E.|last54=Kang|first54=Jae H.|last55=Kirpach|first55=Brenda|last56=Koenen|first56=Karestan C.|last57=Kubzansky|first57=Laura D.|last58=Lacey, Jr|first58=James V.|last59=Le Marchand|first59=Loic|last60=Lin|first60=Xihong|last61=Lutsey|first61=Pam|last62=Marinac|first62=Catherine R.|last63=Martinez|first63=Maria Elena|last64=Milne|first64=Roger L.|last65=Murray|first65=Anne M.|last66=Nash|first66=Denis|last67=Palmer|first67=Julie R.|last68=Patel|first68=Alpa V.|last69=Pierce|first69=Eric|last70=Robertson|first70=McKaylee M.|last71=Rosenberg|first71=Lynn|last72=Sandler|first72=Dale P.|last73=Schurman|first73=Shepherd H.|last74=Sewalk|first74=Kara|last75=Sharma|first75=Shreela V.|last76=Sidey-Gibbons|first76=Christopher J.|last77=Slevin|first77=Liz|last78=Smoller|first78=Jordan W..|last79=Steves|first79=Claire J.|last80=Tiirikainen|first80=Maarit I.|last81=Weiss|first81=Scott T.|last82=Wilkens|first82=Lynne R.|last83=Zhang|first83=Feng|title=Risk of COVID-19 among front-line health-care workers and the general community: a prospective cohort study|journal=The Lancet Public Health|year=2020|issn=24682667|doi=10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30164-X}}</ref> | ||
===Risk | ===Risk Factors Associated with Increased Risk of Infection=== | ||
Similar to all [[Viral disease|viral illnesses]], exposure is considered the most significant [[risk factor]] for [[infection]] with Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). | Similar to all [[Viral disease|viral illnesses]], exposure is considered the most significant [[risk factor]] for [[infection]] with Coronavirus disease 2019 ([[COVID-19]]). According to CDC, racial and ethnic minority groups are at increased risk of getting sick and dying from [[COVID-19]] <ref name="CDC">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/health-equity/race-ethnicity.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcoronavirus%2F2019-ncov%2Fneed-extra-precautions%2Fracial-ethnic-minorities.html |title=Health Equity Considerations and Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups | CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | ||
*[[Discrimination]]: Unfortunately, discrimination exists in systems meant to protect well-being or health. Examples of such systems include health care, housing, education, criminal justice, and finance. | |||
*[[Healthcare]] access and utilization: People from some [[racial]] and [[ethnic]] minority groups are more likely to be uninsured than non-Hispanic whites. | *[[Discrimination]]: Unfortunately, discrimination exists in systems meant to protect well-being or health. Examples of such systems include health care, housing, education, criminal justice, and finance.<ref name="CDC">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/health-equity/race-ethnicity.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcoronavirus%2F2019-ncov%2Fneed-extra-precautions%2Fracial-ethnic-minorities.html |title=Health Equity Considerations and Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups | CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | ||
*Occupation: People from some racial and ethnic minority groups are disproportionately represented in essential work settings such as [[healthcare]] facilities, farms, factories, grocery stores, and public transportation. Chances to be exposed to the [[SARS-CoV-2]] virus. | *[[Healthcare]] access and utilization: People from some [[racial]] and [[ethnic]] minority groups are more likely to be uninsured than non-Hispanic whites.<ref name="CDC">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/health-equity/race-ethnicity.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcoronavirus%2F2019-ncov%2Fneed-extra-precautions%2Fracial-ethnic-minorities.html |title=Health Equity Considerations and Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups | CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | ||
*Educational, income, and wealth gaps: People with limited job options likely have less flexibility to leave jobs that may put them at a higher risk of exposure. They often cannot afford to miss work, even if they’re sick. | *Occupation: People from some racial and ethnic minority groups are disproportionately represented in essential work settings such as [[healthcare]] facilities, farms, factories, grocery stores, and public transportation. Chances to be exposed to the [[SARS-CoV-2]] virus.<ref name="CDC">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/health-equity/race-ethnicity.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcoronavirus%2F2019-ncov%2Fneed-extra-precautions%2Fracial-ethnic-minorities.html |title=Health Equity Considerations and Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups | CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | ||
*Housing: Some people from racial and ethnic minority groups live in crowded conditions that make it more challenging to follow prevention strategies. | *Educational, income, and wealth gaps: People with limited job options likely have less flexibility to leave jobs that may put them at a higher risk of exposure. They often cannot afford to miss work, even if they’re sick.<ref name="CDC">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/health-equity/race-ethnicity.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcoronavirus%2F2019-ncov%2Fneed-extra-precautions%2Fracial-ethnic-minorities.html |title=Health Equity Considerations and Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups | CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | ||
**[[Culture]]: In some cultures, it is common for family members of many generations to live in one household. | *Housing: Some people from racial and ethnic minority groups live in crowded conditions that make it more challenging to follow prevention strategies.<ref name="CDC">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/health-equity/race-ethnicity.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcoronavirus%2F2019-ncov%2Fneed-extra-precautions%2Fracial-ethnic-minorities.html |title=Health Equity Considerations and Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups | CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | ||
**unemployment rates for some racial and ethnic minority groups during the [[pandemic]] may lead to a greater risk of eviction and homelessness or sharing of housing. | **[[Culture]]: In some cultures, it is common for family members of many generations to live in one household.<ref name="CDC">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/health-equity/race-ethnicity.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcoronavirus%2F2019-ncov%2Fneed-extra-precautions%2Fracial-ethnic-minorities.html |title=Health Equity Considerations and Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups | CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | ||
**unemployment rates for some racial and ethnic minority groups during the [[pandemic]] may lead to a greater risk of eviction and homelessness or sharing of housing.<ref name="CDC">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/health-equity/race-ethnicity.html?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fcoronavirus%2F2019-ncov%2Fneed-extra-precautions%2Fracial-ethnic-minorities.html |title=Health Equity Considerations and Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups | CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | |||
===Risk Factors Associated with Increased Risk of Mortality and Severity of the Disease=== | |||
*Individuals at risk for the severe form of the [[disease]] include:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://weekly.chinacdc.cn/en/article/id/e53946e2-c6c4-41e9-9a9b-fea8db1a8f51|title=|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="LiGuan2020">{{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Qun|last2=Guan|first2=Xuhua|last3=Wu|first3=Peng|last4=Wang|first4=Xiaoye|last5=Zhou|first5=Lei|last6=Tong|first6=Yeqing|last7=Ren|first7=Ruiqi|last8=Leung|first8=Kathy S.M.|last9=Lau|first9=Eric H.Y.|last10=Wong|first10=Jessica Y.|last11=Xing|first11=Xuesen|last12=Xiang|first12=Nijuan|last13=Wu|first13=Yang|last14=Li|first14=Chao|last15=Chen|first15=Qi|last16=Li|first16=Dan|last17=Liu|first17=Tian|last18=Zhao|first18=Jing|last19=Liu|first19=Man|last20=Tu|first20=Wenxiao|last21=Chen|first21=Chuding|last22=Jin|first22=Lianmei|last23=Yang|first23=Rui|last24=Wang|first24=Qi|last25=Zhou|first25=Suhua|last26=Wang|first26=Rui|last27=Liu|first27=Hui|last28=Luo|first28=Yinbo|last29=Liu|first29=Yuan|last30=Shao|first30=Ge|last31=Li|first31=Huan|last32=Tao|first32=Zhongfa|last33=Yang|first33=Yang|last34=Deng|first34=Zhiqiang|last35=Liu|first35=Boxi|last36=Ma|first36=Zhitao|last37=Zhang|first37=Yanping|last38=Shi|first38=Guoqing|last39=Lam|first39=Tommy T.Y.|last40=Wu|first40=Joseph T.|last41=Gao|first41=George F.|last42=Cowling|first42=Benjamin J.|last43=Yang|first43=Bo|last44=Leung|first44=Gabriel M.|last45=Feng|first45=Zijian|title=Early Transmission Dynamics in Wuhan, China, of Novel Coronavirus–Infected Pneumonia|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|year=2020|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2001316}}</ref><ref name="HeymannShindo2020">{{cite journal|last1=Heymann|first1=David L|last2=Shindo|first2=Nahoko|title=COVID-19: what is next for public health?|journal=The Lancet|volume=395|issue=10224|year=2020|pages=542–545|issn=01406736|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30374-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/specific-groups/high-risk-complications.html|title=|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="HuSong2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hu|first1=Zhiliang|last2=Song|first2=Ci|last3=Xu|first3=Chuanjun|last4=Jin|first4=Guangfu|last5=Chen|first5=Yaling|last6=Xu|first6=Xin|last7=Ma|first7=Hongxia|last8=Chen|first8=Wei|last9=Lin|first9=Yuan|last10=Zheng|first10=Yishan|last11=Wang|first11=Jianming|last12=Hu|first12=Zhibin|last13=Yi|first13=Yongxiang|last14=Shen|first14=Hongbing|title=Clinical characteristics of 24 asymptomatic infections with COVID-19 screened among close contacts in Nanjing, China|journal=Science China Life Sciences|year=2020|issn=1674-7305|doi=10.1007/s11427-020-1661-4}}</ref><ref name="PorchedduSerra2020">{{cite journal|last1=Porcheddu|first1=Rossella|last2=Serra|first2=Caterina|last3=Kelvin|first3=David|last4=Kelvin|first4=Nikki|last5=Rubino|first5=Salvatore|title=Similarity in Case Fatality Rates (CFR) of COVID-19/SARS-COV-2 in Italy and China|journal=The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries|volume=14|issue=02|year=2020|pages=125–128|issn=1972-2680|doi=10.3855/jidc.12600}}</ref><ref name="Wilder-SmithChiew2020">{{cite journal|last1=Wilder-Smith|first1=Annelies|last2=Chiew|first2=Calvin J|last3=Lee|first3=Vernon J|title=Can we contain the COVID-19 outbreak with the same measures as for SARS?|journal=The Lancet Infectious Diseases|year=2020|issn=14733099|doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30129-8}}</ref> | |||
* Individuals at risk for the severe form of the [[disease]] include:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://weekly.chinacdc.cn/en/article/id/e53946e2-c6c4-41e9-9a9b-fea8db1a8f51|title=|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="LiGuan2020">{{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Qun|last2=Guan|first2=Xuhua|last3=Wu|first3=Peng|last4=Wang|first4=Xiaoye|last5=Zhou|first5=Lei|last6=Tong|first6=Yeqing|last7=Ren|first7=Ruiqi|last8=Leung|first8=Kathy S.M.|last9=Lau|first9=Eric H.Y.|last10=Wong|first10=Jessica Y.|last11=Xing|first11=Xuesen|last12=Xiang|first12=Nijuan|last13=Wu|first13=Yang|last14=Li|first14=Chao|last15=Chen|first15=Qi|last16=Li|first16=Dan|last17=Liu|first17=Tian|last18=Zhao|first18=Jing|last19=Liu|first19=Man|last20=Tu|first20=Wenxiao|last21=Chen|first21=Chuding|last22=Jin|first22=Lianmei|last23=Yang|first23=Rui|last24=Wang|first24=Qi|last25=Zhou|first25=Suhua|last26=Wang|first26=Rui|last27=Liu|first27=Hui|last28=Luo|first28=Yinbo|last29=Liu|first29=Yuan|last30=Shao|first30=Ge|last31=Li|first31=Huan|last32=Tao|first32=Zhongfa|last33=Yang|first33=Yang|last34=Deng|first34=Zhiqiang|last35=Liu|first35=Boxi|last36=Ma|first36=Zhitao|last37=Zhang|first37=Yanping|last38=Shi|first38=Guoqing|last39=Lam|first39=Tommy T.Y.|last40=Wu|first40=Joseph T.|last41=Gao|first41=George F.|last42=Cowling|first42=Benjamin J.|last43=Yang|first43=Bo|last44=Leung|first44=Gabriel M.|last45=Feng|first45=Zijian|title=Early Transmission Dynamics in Wuhan, China, of Novel Coronavirus–Infected Pneumonia|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|year=2020|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa2001316}}</ref><ref name="HeymannShindo2020">{{cite journal|last1=Heymann|first1=David L|last2=Shindo|first2=Nahoko|title=COVID-19: what is next for public health?|journal=The Lancet|volume=395|issue=10224|year=2020|pages=542–545|issn=01406736|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30374-3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/specific-groups/high-risk-complications.html|title=|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="HuSong2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hu|first1=Zhiliang|last2=Song|first2=Ci|last3=Xu|first3=Chuanjun|last4=Jin|first4=Guangfu|last5=Chen|first5=Yaling|last6=Xu|first6=Xin|last7=Ma|first7=Hongxia|last8=Chen|first8=Wei|last9=Lin|first9=Yuan|last10=Zheng|first10=Yishan|last11=Wang|first11=Jianming|last12=Hu|first12=Zhibin|last13=Yi|first13=Yongxiang|last14=Shen|first14=Hongbing|title=Clinical characteristics of 24 asymptomatic infections with COVID-19 screened among close contacts in Nanjing, China|journal=Science China Life Sciences|year=2020|issn=1674-7305|doi=10.1007/s11427-020-1661-4}}</ref><ref name="PorchedduSerra2020">{{cite journal|last1=Porcheddu|first1=Rossella|last2=Serra|first2=Caterina|last3=Kelvin|first3=David|last4=Kelvin|first4=Nikki|last5=Rubino|first5=Salvatore|title=Similarity in Case Fatality Rates (CFR) of COVID-19/SARS-COV-2 in Italy and China|journal=The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries|volume=14|issue=02|year=2020|pages=125–128|issn=1972-2680|doi=10.3855/jidc.12600}}</ref><ref name="Wilder-SmithChiew2020">{{cite journal|last1=Wilder-Smith|first1=Annelies|last2=Chiew|first2=Calvin J|last3=Lee|first3=Vernon J|title=Can we contain the COVID-19 outbreak with the same measures as for SARS?|journal=The Lancet Infectious Diseases|year=2020|issn=14733099|doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30129-8}}</ref> | |||
**[[Cardiovascular disease]] [[Patient|patients]] | **[[Cardiovascular disease]] [[Patient|patients]] | ||
**[[Diabetic|Diabetics]] | **[[Diabetic|Diabetics]] | ||
| Line 29: | Line 34: | ||
**[[Cancer patient|Cancer patients]] | **[[Cancer patient|Cancer patients]] | ||
**Individuals in long term care facilities | **Individuals in long term care facilities | ||
**Males | **Males | ||
***According to a [[systematic review]] and [[Meta-analysis]] males had significantly higher [[mortality]] compared to females ([[OR]] 3.4; 95% [[CI]] 1.2–9.1, P=0.01)<ref name="NasiriHaddadi2020">{{cite journal|last1=Nasiri|first1=Mohammad Javad|last2=Haddadi|first2=Sara|last3=Tahvildari|first3=Azin|last4=Farsi|first4=Yeganeh|last5=Arbabi|first5=Mahta|last6=Hasanzadeh|first6=Saba|last7=Jamshidi|first7=Parnian|last8=Murthi|first8=Mukunthan|last9=Mirsaeidi|first9=Mehdi|title=COVID-19 Clinical Characteristics, and Sex-Specific Risk of Mortality: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|journal=Frontiers in Medicine|volume=7|year=2020|issn=2296-858X|doi=10.3389/fmed.2020.00459}}</ref> | ***According to a [[systematic review]] and [[Meta-analysis]] males had significantly higher [[mortality]] compared to females ([[OR]] 3.4; 95% [[CI]] 1.2–9.1, P=0.01)<ref name="NasiriHaddadi2020">{{cite journal|last1=Nasiri|first1=Mohammad Javad|last2=Haddadi|first2=Sara|last3=Tahvildari|first3=Azin|last4=Farsi|first4=Yeganeh|last5=Arbabi|first5=Mahta|last6=Hasanzadeh|first6=Saba|last7=Jamshidi|first7=Parnian|last8=Murthi|first8=Mukunthan|last9=Mirsaeidi|first9=Mehdi|title=COVID-19 Clinical Characteristics, and Sex-Specific Risk of Mortality: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|journal=Frontiers in Medicine|volume=7|year=2020|issn=2296-858X|doi=10.3389/fmed.2020.00459}}</ref> | ||
| Line 35: | Line 39: | ||
***In the UK 90% of deaths were reported in people over 60 | ***In the UK 90% of deaths were reported in people over 60 | ||
***Individuals ≥80 years had more than 20-fold increased risk of death compared to the 50-59 year olds age group.<ref name="WilliamsonWalker2020">{{cite journal|last1=Williamson|first1=Elizabeth J.|last2=Walker|first2=Alex J.|last3=Bhaskaran|first3=Krishnan|last4=Bacon|first4=Seb|last5=Bates|first5=Chris|last6=Morton|first6=Caroline E.|last7=Curtis|first7=Helen J.|last8=Mehrkar|first8=Amir|last9=Evans|first9=David|last10=Inglesby|first10=Peter|last11=Cockburn|first11=Jonathan|last12=McDonald|first12=Helen I.|last13=MacKenna|first13=Brian|last14=Tomlinson|first14=Laurie|last15=Douglas|first15=Ian J.|last16=Rentsch|first16=Christopher T.|last17=Mathur|first17=Rohini|last18=Wong|first18=Angel Y. S.|last19=Grieve|first19=Richard|last20=Harrison|first20=David|last21=Forbes|first21=Harriet|last22=Schultze|first22=Anna|last23=Croker|first23=Richard|last24=Parry|first24=John|last25=Hester|first25=Frank|last26=Harper|first26=Sam|last27=Perera|first27=Rafael|last28=Evans|first28=Stephen J. W.|last29=Smeeth|first29=Liam|last30=Goldacre|first30=Ben|title=OpenSAFELY: factors associated with COVID-19 death in 17 million patients|journal=Nature|year=2020|issn=0028-0836|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2521-4}}</ref> | ***Individuals ≥80 years had more than 20-fold increased risk of death compared to the 50-59 year olds age group.<ref name="WilliamsonWalker2020">{{cite journal|last1=Williamson|first1=Elizabeth J.|last2=Walker|first2=Alex J.|last3=Bhaskaran|first3=Krishnan|last4=Bacon|first4=Seb|last5=Bates|first5=Chris|last6=Morton|first6=Caroline E.|last7=Curtis|first7=Helen J.|last8=Mehrkar|first8=Amir|last9=Evans|first9=David|last10=Inglesby|first10=Peter|last11=Cockburn|first11=Jonathan|last12=McDonald|first12=Helen I.|last13=MacKenna|first13=Brian|last14=Tomlinson|first14=Laurie|last15=Douglas|first15=Ian J.|last16=Rentsch|first16=Christopher T.|last17=Mathur|first17=Rohini|last18=Wong|first18=Angel Y. S.|last19=Grieve|first19=Richard|last20=Harrison|first20=David|last21=Forbes|first21=Harriet|last22=Schultze|first22=Anna|last23=Croker|first23=Richard|last24=Parry|first24=John|last25=Hester|first25=Frank|last26=Harper|first26=Sam|last27=Perera|first27=Rafael|last28=Evans|first28=Stephen J. W.|last29=Smeeth|first29=Liam|last30=Goldacre|first30=Ben|title=OpenSAFELY: factors associated with COVID-19 death in 17 million patients|journal=Nature|year=2020|issn=0028-0836|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2521-4}}</ref> | ||
**People from black and [[minority ethnic]] (BME) groups <ref name="WilliamsonWalker2020">{{cite journal|last1=Williamson|first1=Elizabeth J.|last2=Walker|first2=Alex J.|last3=Bhaskaran|first3=Krishnan|last4=Bacon|first4=Seb|last5=Bates|first5=Chris|last6=Morton|first6=Caroline E.|last7=Curtis|first7=Helen J.|last8=Mehrkar|first8=Amir|last9=Evans|first9=David|last10=Inglesby|first10=Peter|last11=Cockburn|first11=Jonathan|last12=McDonald|first12=Helen I.|last13=MacKenna|first13=Brian|last14=Tomlinson|first14=Laurie|last15=Douglas|first15=Ian J.|last16=Rentsch|first16=Christopher T.|last17=Mathur|first17=Rohini|last18=Wong|first18=Angel Y. S.|last19=Grieve|first19=Richard|last20=Harrison|first20=David|last21=Forbes|first21=Harriet|last22=Schultze|first22=Anna|last23=Croker|first23=Richard|last24=Parry|first24=John|last25=Hester|first25=Frank|last26=Harper|first26=Sam|last27=Perera|first27=Rafael|last28=Evans|first28=Stephen J. W.|last29=Smeeth|first29=Liam|last30=Goldacre|first30=Ben|title=OpenSAFELY: factors associated with COVID-19 death in 17 million patients|journal=Nature|year=2020|issn=0028-0836|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2521-4}}</ref> | |||
***According to a survey by The Johns Hopkins University and American Community, [[infection rate]] was more than 3-fold higher in predominantly black counties in the US compared to the predominantly white counties and the [[death rate]] for predominantly black counties was 6-fold higher. Although further studies are needed to understand the race disparity, this result indicates that minorities such as black communities are in risk of COVID-19 infection more frequently and dying disproportionately. There could be multiple barriers in [[social distancing]] in these communities that result in higher infection and death rates.<ref name="Yancy2020">{{cite journal|last1=Yancy|first1=Clyde W.|title=COVID-19 and African Americans|journal=JAMA|volume=323|issue=19|year=2020|pages=1891|issn=0098-7484|doi=10.1001/jama.2020.6548}}</ref> | |||
**[[Obese]] Patients ([[hazard ratios]] 1.19-1.39 after age and sex correction)<ref name="WilliamsonWalker2020">{{cite journal|last1=Williamson|first1=Elizabeth J.|last2=Walker|first2=Alex J.|last3=Bhaskaran|first3=Krishnan|last4=Bacon|first4=Seb|last5=Bates|first5=Chris|last6=Morton|first6=Caroline E.|last7=Curtis|first7=Helen J.|last8=Mehrkar|first8=Amir|last9=Evans|first9=David|last10=Inglesby|first10=Peter|last11=Cockburn|first11=Jonathan|last12=McDonald|first12=Helen I.|last13=MacKenna|first13=Brian|last14=Tomlinson|first14=Laurie|last15=Douglas|first15=Ian J.|last16=Rentsch|first16=Christopher T.|last17=Mathur|first17=Rohini|last18=Wong|first18=Angel Y. S.|last19=Grieve|first19=Richard|last20=Harrison|first20=David|last21=Forbes|first21=Harriet|last22=Schultze|first22=Anna|last23=Croker|first23=Richard|last24=Parry|first24=John|last25=Hester|first25=Frank|last26=Harper|first26=Sam|last27=Perera|first27=Rafael|last28=Evans|first28=Stephen J. W.|last29=Smeeth|first29=Liam|last30=Goldacre|first30=Ben|title=OpenSAFELY: factors associated with COVID-19 death in 17 million patients|journal=Nature|year=2020|issn=0028-0836|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2521-4}}</ref> | **[[Obese]] Patients ([[hazard ratios]] 1.19-1.39 after age and sex correction)<ref name="WilliamsonWalker2020">{{cite journal|last1=Williamson|first1=Elizabeth J.|last2=Walker|first2=Alex J.|last3=Bhaskaran|first3=Krishnan|last4=Bacon|first4=Seb|last5=Bates|first5=Chris|last6=Morton|first6=Caroline E.|last7=Curtis|first7=Helen J.|last8=Mehrkar|first8=Amir|last9=Evans|first9=David|last10=Inglesby|first10=Peter|last11=Cockburn|first11=Jonathan|last12=McDonald|first12=Helen I.|last13=MacKenna|first13=Brian|last14=Tomlinson|first14=Laurie|last15=Douglas|first15=Ian J.|last16=Rentsch|first16=Christopher T.|last17=Mathur|first17=Rohini|last18=Wong|first18=Angel Y. S.|last19=Grieve|first19=Richard|last20=Harrison|first20=David|last21=Forbes|first21=Harriet|last22=Schultze|first22=Anna|last23=Croker|first23=Richard|last24=Parry|first24=John|last25=Hester|first25=Frank|last26=Harper|first26=Sam|last27=Perera|first27=Rafael|last28=Evans|first28=Stephen J. W.|last29=Smeeth|first29=Liam|last30=Goldacre|first30=Ben|title=OpenSAFELY: factors associated with COVID-19 death in 17 million patients|journal=Nature|year=2020|issn=0028-0836|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2521-4}}</ref> | ||
**[[Vitamin D deficiency historical perspective|Vitamin D deficient individuals]] | **[[Vitamin D deficiency historical perspective|Vitamin D deficient individuals]] | ||
***A study in an Israeli based population showed that low [[vitamin D]] levels could be an independent [[risk factor]] for [[COVID-19]] [OR 1.45; (95% CI 1.08‐1.95, p<0.001)] and hospitalization [OR; 1.95 (95% CI 0.98‐4.845, p=0.061)] after adjustment for [[confounders]].<ref name="urlLow plasma 25(OH) vitamin D level is associated with increased risk of COVID‐19 infection: an Israeli population‐based study - Merzon - - The FEBS Journal - Wiley Online Library">{{cite web |url=https://febs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/febs.15495 |title=Low plasma 25(OH) vitamin D level is associated with increased risk of COVID‐19 infection: an Israeli population‐based study - Merzon - - The FEBS Journal - Wiley Online Library |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>. | ***A study in an Israeli based population showed that low [[vitamin D]] levels could be an independent [[risk factor]] for [[COVID-19]] [OR 1.45; (95% CI 1.08‐1.95, p<0.001)] and hospitalization [OR; 1.95 (95% CI 0.98‐4.845, p=0.061)] after adjustment for [[confounders]].<ref name="urlLow plasma 25(OH) vitamin D level is associated with increased risk of COVID‐19 infection: an Israeli population‐based study - Merzon - - The FEBS Journal - Wiley Online Library">{{cite web |url=https://febs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/febs.15495 |title=Low plasma 25(OH) vitamin D level is associated with increased risk of COVID‐19 infection: an Israeli population‐based study - Merzon - - The FEBS Journal - Wiley Online Library |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>. | ||
*[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] has published the following conditions listed in the table below as the risk factors for a severe [[COVID-19]]. These conditions are categorized into the following groups based on the current evidence:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/downloads/community-mitigation-strategy.pdf|title=|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/evidence-table.html |title=Scientific Evidence for Conditions that Increase Risk of Severe Illness | COVID-19 | CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | *[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] has published the following [[conditions]] listed in the table below as the risk factors for a severe [[COVID-19]]. These conditions are categorized into the following groups based on the current [[evidence]]:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/downloads/community-mitigation-strategy.pdf|title=|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/evidence-table.html |title=Scientific Evidence for Conditions that Increase Risk of Severe Illness | COVID-19 | CDC |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | ||
#'''Strongest and most consistent evidence''': define as consistent evidence from multiple small studies or a strong association from a large study are categorized. They increase the severity of COVID-19 regardless of the individual's age | |||
#'''Strongest and most consistent evidence''': define as consistent evidence from multiple small studies or a strong association from a large study are categorized. They increase the severity of [[COVID-19]] regardless of the individual's age | |||
#'''Mixed evidence''': Defined as multiple studies that reached different conclusions about the risk associated with a condition | #'''Mixed evidence''': Defined as multiple studies that reached different conclusions about the risk associated with a condition | ||
#'''Limited evidence''': Defined as consistent evidence from a small number of studies. Limited evidence: Defined as consistent evidence from a small number of studies. | #'''Limited evidence''': Defined as consistent evidence from a small number of studies. Limited evidence: Defined as consistent evidence from a small number of studies. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+underlying medical conditions that increase a person’s risk of severe illness from COVID-19 | |+underlying medical conditions that increase a person’s risk of severe illness from COVID-19 | ||
!style="background: #4479BA; width: 200px;" | {{fontcolor|#FFF|Level of Evidence}} | ! style="background: #4479BA; width: 200px;" |{{fontcolor|#FFF|Level of Evidence}} | ||
!style="background: #4479BA; width: 200px;" | {{fontcolor|#FFF|Condition}} | ! style="background: #4479BA; width: 200px;" |{{fontcolor|#FFF|Condition}} | ||
|- | |- | ||
|style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC; font-weight: bold" |[[Strongest and Most Consistent Evidence]] | | style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC; font-weight: bold" |[[Strongest and Most Consistent Evidence]] | ||
| | | | ||
*Serious heart conditions, such as heart failure, coronary artery disease, or cardiomyopathies | *Serious [[heart conditions]], such as [[heart failure]], [[coronary artery disease]], or [[cardiomyopathies]] | ||
*Cancer | *[[Cancer]] | ||
*Chronic kidney disease | *[[Chronic kidney disease]] | ||
*COPD | *[[COPD]] | ||
*Obesity (BMI> 30) | *[[Obesity]] ([[BMI]]> 30) | ||
*Sickle cell disease | *[[Sickle cell disease]] | ||
*Solid organ transplantation | *[[Solid organ transplantation]] | ||
*Type 2 diabetes mellitus | *[[Type 2 diabetes mellitus]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC; font-weight: bold" |[[Mixed Evidence]] | | style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC; font-weight: bold" |[[Mixed Evidence]] | ||
| Line 69: | Line 76: | ||
*Use of [[corticosteroids]] or other [[immunosuppressive medications]] | *Use of [[corticosteroids]] or other [[immunosuppressive medications]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC; font-weight: bold" |[[Limited Evidence]] | | style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC; font-weight: bold" |[[Limited Evidence]] | ||
| | | | ||
*Bone marrow transplantation | *[[Bone marrow transplantation]] | ||
*HIV | *[[HIV]] | ||
*Immune deficiencies | *[[Immune deficiencies]] | ||
*Inherited metabolic disorders | *Inherited [[metabolic disorders]] | ||
*[[Liver disease]] | *[[Liver disease]] | ||
*[[Neurologic]] conditions | *[[Neurologic]] conditions | ||
*Other chronic lung diseases | *Other [[chronic lung diseases]] | ||
*Pediatrics | *[[Pediatrics]] | ||
*[[Thalassemia]] | *[[Thalassemia]] | ||
*[[Type 1 diabetes mellitus]] | *[[Type 1 diabetes mellitus]] | ||
Latest revision as of 15:47, 8 September 2020
|
COVID-19 Microchapters |
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Diagnosis |
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Treatment |
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Case Studies |
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COVID-19 risk factors On the Web |
|
American Roentgen Ray Society Images of COVID-19 risk factors |
For COVID-19 frequently asked inpatient questions, click here
For COVID-19 frequently asked outpatient questions, click here
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] ; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sara Haddadi, M.D.[2] Sabawoon Mirwais, M.B.B.S, M.D.[3] Aisha Adigun, B.Sc., M.D.[4]
Overview
Front-line health-care workers are at increased risk of having a positive Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) test. Similar to all viral illnesses, exposure is considered the most significant risk factor for infection with SARS-CoV-2 that causes COVID-19. Racial and ethnic minority groups are at increased risk of the infection. The most common risk factors associated with a severe form of the disease include elderly (those aged 60+), male sex, cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, COPD, hypertension, Cancer, Solid organ transplantation, Sickle cell disease, and Obesity (BMI > 30).
Risk Factors
A recent study showed that front-line health-care workers were at increased risk of having a positive COVID-19 test (adjusted HR 3·40, 95% CI 3·37–3·43). Adequacy of PPE, clinical setting, and ethnic background were important factors for a higher positive test result in this group.[1]
Risk Factors Associated with Increased Risk of Infection
Similar to all viral illnesses, exposure is considered the most significant risk factor for infection with Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). According to CDC, racial and ethnic minority groups are at increased risk of getting sick and dying from COVID-19 [2]
- Discrimination: Unfortunately, discrimination exists in systems meant to protect well-being or health. Examples of such systems include health care, housing, education, criminal justice, and finance.[2]
- Healthcare access and utilization: People from some racial and ethnic minority groups are more likely to be uninsured than non-Hispanic whites.[2]
- Occupation: People from some racial and ethnic minority groups are disproportionately represented in essential work settings such as healthcare facilities, farms, factories, grocery stores, and public transportation. Chances to be exposed to the SARS-CoV-2 virus.[2]
- Educational, income, and wealth gaps: People with limited job options likely have less flexibility to leave jobs that may put them at a higher risk of exposure. They often cannot afford to miss work, even if they’re sick.[2]
- Housing: Some people from racial and ethnic minority groups live in crowded conditions that make it more challenging to follow prevention strategies.[2]
Risk Factors Associated with Increased Risk of Mortality and Severity of the Disease
- Individuals at risk for the severe form of the disease include:[3][4][5][6][7][8][9]
- Cardiovascular disease patients
- Diabetics
- Chronic respiratory disease patients
- Hypertensive patients
- Cancer patients
- Individuals in long term care facilities
- Males
- According to a systematic review and Meta-analysis males had significantly higher mortality compared to females (OR 3.4; 95% CI 1.2–9.1, P=0.01)[10]
- Elderly (those aged 60+)
- In the UK 90% of deaths were reported in people over 60
- Individuals ≥80 years had more than 20-fold increased risk of death compared to the 50-59 year olds age group.[11]
- People from black and minority ethnic (BME) groups [11]
- According to a survey by The Johns Hopkins University and American Community, infection rate was more than 3-fold higher in predominantly black counties in the US compared to the predominantly white counties and the death rate for predominantly black counties was 6-fold higher. Although further studies are needed to understand the race disparity, this result indicates that minorities such as black communities are in risk of COVID-19 infection more frequently and dying disproportionately. There could be multiple barriers in social distancing in these communities that result in higher infection and death rates.[12]
- Obese Patients (hazard ratios 1.19-1.39 after age and sex correction)[11]
- Vitamin D deficient individuals
- A study in an Israeli based population showed that low vitamin D levels could be an independent risk factor for COVID-19 [OR 1.45; (95% CI 1.08‐1.95, p<0.001)] and hospitalization [OR; 1.95 (95% CI 0.98‐4.845, p=0.061)] after adjustment for confounders.[13].
- CDC has published the following conditions listed in the table below as the risk factors for a severe COVID-19. These conditions are categorized into the following groups based on the current evidence:[14][15]
- Strongest and most consistent evidence: define as consistent evidence from multiple small studies or a strong association from a large study are categorized. They increase the severity of COVID-19 regardless of the individual's age
- Mixed evidence: Defined as multiple studies that reached different conclusions about the risk associated with a condition
- Limited evidence: Defined as consistent evidence from a small number of studies. Limited evidence: Defined as consistent evidence from a small number of studies.
| Level of Evidence | Condition |
|---|---|
| Strongest and Most Consistent Evidence | |
| Mixed Evidence | |
| Limited Evidence |
This list is a living document that will be periodically updated, and it could rapidly change as the science evolves.
References
- ↑ Nguyen, Long H; Drew, David A; Graham, Mark S; Joshi, Amit D; Guo, Chuan-Guo; Ma, Wenjie; Mehta, Raaj S; Warner, Erica T; Sikavi, Daniel R; Lo, Chun-Han; Kwon, Sohee; Song, Mingyang; Mucci, Lorelei A; Stampfer, Meir J; Willett, Walter C; Eliassen, A Heather; Hart, Jaime E; Chavarro, Jorge E; Rich-Edwards, Janet W; Davies, Richard; Capdevila, Joan; Lee, Karla A; Lochlainn, Mary Ni; Varsavsky, Thomas; Sudre, Carole H; Cardoso, M Jorge; Wolf, Jonathan; Spector, Tim D; Ourselin, Sebastien; Steves, Claire J; Chan, Andrew T; Albert, Christine M.; Andreotti, Gabriella; Bala, Bijal; Balasubramanian, Bijal A.; Beane-Freeman, Laura E.; Brownstein, John S.; Bruinsma, Fiona J.; Coresh, Joe; Costa, Rui; Cowan, Annie N.; Deka, Anusila; Deming-Halverson, Sandra L.; Elena Martinez, Maria; Ernst, Michael E.; Figueiredo, Jane C.; Fortuna, Pedro; Franks, Paul W.; Freeman, Laura Beane; Gardner, Christopher D.; Ghobrial, Irene M.; Haiman, Christopher A.; Hall, Janet E.; Kang, Jae H.; Kirpach, Brenda; Koenen, Karestan C.; Kubzansky, Laura D.; Lacey, Jr, James V.; Le Marchand, Loic; Lin, Xihong; Lutsey, Pam; Marinac, Catherine R.; Martinez, Maria Elena; Milne, Roger L.; Murray, Anne M.; Nash, Denis; Palmer, Julie R.; Patel, Alpa V.; Pierce, Eric; Robertson, McKaylee M.; Rosenberg, Lynn; Sandler, Dale P.; Schurman, Shepherd H.; Sewalk, Kara; Sharma, Shreela V.; Sidey-Gibbons, Christopher J.; Slevin, Liz; Smoller, Jordan W..; Steves, Claire J.; Tiirikainen, Maarit I.; Weiss, Scott T.; Wilkens, Lynne R.; Zhang, Feng (2020). "Risk of COVID-19 among front-line health-care workers and the general community: a prospective cohort study". The Lancet Public Health. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30164-X. ISSN 2468-2667.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 "Health Equity Considerations and Racial and Ethnic Minority Groups | CDC".
- ↑ http://weekly.chinacdc.cn/en/article/id/e53946e2-c6c4-41e9-9a9b-fea8db1a8f51. Missing or empty
|title=(help) - ↑ Li, Qun; Guan, Xuhua; Wu, Peng; Wang, Xiaoye; Zhou, Lei; Tong, Yeqing; Ren, Ruiqi; Leung, Kathy S.M.; Lau, Eric H.Y.; Wong, Jessica Y.; Xing, Xuesen; Xiang, Nijuan; Wu, Yang; Li, Chao; Chen, Qi; Li, Dan; Liu, Tian; Zhao, Jing; Liu, Man; Tu, Wenxiao; Chen, Chuding; Jin, Lianmei; Yang, Rui; Wang, Qi; Zhou, Suhua; Wang, Rui; Liu, Hui; Luo, Yinbo; Liu, Yuan; Shao, Ge; Li, Huan; Tao, Zhongfa; Yang, Yang; Deng, Zhiqiang; Liu, Boxi; Ma, Zhitao; Zhang, Yanping; Shi, Guoqing; Lam, Tommy T.Y.; Wu, Joseph T.; Gao, George F.; Cowling, Benjamin J.; Yang, Bo; Leung, Gabriel M.; Feng, Zijian (2020). "Early Transmission Dynamics in Wuhan, China, of Novel Coronavirus–Infected Pneumonia". New England Journal of Medicine. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2001316. ISSN 0028-4793.
- ↑ Heymann, David L; Shindo, Nahoko (2020). "COVID-19: what is next for public health?". The Lancet. 395 (10224): 542–545. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30374-3. ISSN 0140-6736.
- ↑ https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/specific-groups/high-risk-complications.html. Missing or empty
|title=(help) - ↑ Hu, Zhiliang; Song, Ci; Xu, Chuanjun; Jin, Guangfu; Chen, Yaling; Xu, Xin; Ma, Hongxia; Chen, Wei; Lin, Yuan; Zheng, Yishan; Wang, Jianming; Hu, Zhibin; Yi, Yongxiang; Shen, Hongbing (2020). "Clinical characteristics of 24 asymptomatic infections with COVID-19 screened among close contacts in Nanjing, China". Science China Life Sciences. doi:10.1007/s11427-020-1661-4. ISSN 1674-7305.
- ↑ Porcheddu, Rossella; Serra, Caterina; Kelvin, David; Kelvin, Nikki; Rubino, Salvatore (2020). "Similarity in Case Fatality Rates (CFR) of COVID-19/SARS-COV-2 in Italy and China". The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries. 14 (02): 125–128. doi:10.3855/jidc.12600. ISSN 1972-2680.
- ↑ Wilder-Smith, Annelies; Chiew, Calvin J; Lee, Vernon J (2020). "Can we contain the COVID-19 outbreak with the same measures as for SARS?". The Lancet Infectious Diseases. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30129-8. ISSN 1473-3099.
- ↑ Nasiri, Mohammad Javad; Haddadi, Sara; Tahvildari, Azin; Farsi, Yeganeh; Arbabi, Mahta; Hasanzadeh, Saba; Jamshidi, Parnian; Murthi, Mukunthan; Mirsaeidi, Mehdi (2020). "COVID-19 Clinical Characteristics, and Sex-Specific Risk of Mortality: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Frontiers in Medicine. 7. doi:10.3389/fmed.2020.00459. ISSN 2296-858X.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Williamson, Elizabeth J.; Walker, Alex J.; Bhaskaran, Krishnan; Bacon, Seb; Bates, Chris; Morton, Caroline E.; Curtis, Helen J.; Mehrkar, Amir; Evans, David; Inglesby, Peter; Cockburn, Jonathan; McDonald, Helen I.; MacKenna, Brian; Tomlinson, Laurie; Douglas, Ian J.; Rentsch, Christopher T.; Mathur, Rohini; Wong, Angel Y. S.; Grieve, Richard; Harrison, David; Forbes, Harriet; Schultze, Anna; Croker, Richard; Parry, John; Hester, Frank; Harper, Sam; Perera, Rafael; Evans, Stephen J. W.; Smeeth, Liam; Goldacre, Ben (2020). "OpenSAFELY: factors associated with COVID-19 death in 17 million patients". Nature. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2521-4. ISSN 0028-0836.
- ↑ Yancy, Clyde W. (2020). "COVID-19 and African Americans". JAMA. 323 (19): 1891. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.6548. ISSN 0098-7484.
- ↑ "Low plasma 25(OH) vitamin D level is associated with increased risk of COVID‐19 infection: an Israeli population‐based study - Merzon - - The FEBS Journal - Wiley Online Library".
- ↑ (PDF) https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/downloads/community-mitigation-strategy.pdf. Missing or empty
|title=(help) - ↑ "Scientific Evidence for Conditions that Increase Risk of Severe Illness | COVID-19 | CDC".