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'''For patient information click [[Bruxism (patient information)|here]]'''
'''For patient information click [[Bruxism (patient information)|here]]'''


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==Overview==
==Overview==
Bruxism is defined as repeated involuntary grinding and clenching of teeth which can occur either diurnal or nocturnally. In 1907 Marie Pielkiewics coined the french term 'La Bruxomanie" for bruxism. Bruxism can be classified into awake bruxism and sleep bruxism based on the physiological sleep status of the individual. The etiology of bruxism can be categorized into three groups psychosocial factors, peripheral factors, and pathophysiological factors. Multifactorial etiology causes involving brain neurotransmitters or basal ganglia. Bruxism affects men and women equally. Factors associated with an increased risk of bruxism include Obstructive sleep apnea, Alcohol abuse, caffeine intake, Smoking, Anxiety. The symptoms of bruxism, usually develop in the first decade of life, and start with symptoms such as the appearance of the first primary upper and lower anterior teeth. Common complications of bruxism are tooth wear, tooth hypersensitivity. Bruxism is primarily diagnosed based on the clinical presentation. H/o complains of disturbance from the clicking or grating sound by the accompanied partners. The most common symptoms of bruxism include Involuntary rhythmic contractions of the masticator muscles during sleep. Removal of any offending agent responsible for bruxism is the primary step in the management. Surgery is the mainstay of treatment in the management of bruxism.
Bruxism is defined as repeated involuntary grinding and clenching of [[teeth]] which can occur either diurnal or nocturnally. In 1907, Marie Pielkiewics coined the French term 'La Bruxomanie" for bruxism. Bruxism can be classified into awake bruxism and sleep bruxism based on the [[physiological]] [[sleep]] status of the individual. The [[etiology]] of bruxism can be categorized into three groups:[[psychosocial]] factors, peripheral factors, and [[pathophysiological]] factors. Multifactorial [[etiology]] causes involving [[brain]] [[neurotransmitters]] or [[basal ganglia]]. Bruxism affects [[men]] and [[women]] equally. Factors associated with an increased risk of bruxism include [[obstructive sleep apnea]], [[alcohol abuse]], [[caffeine]] intake, [[smoking]], and [[anxiety]]. The [[symptoms]] of bruxism usually develop in the first decade of life, and start with the appearance of the first primary upper and lower anterior [[teeth]]. Common [[complications]] of bruxism are [[tooth]] wear, and [[tooth]] hypersensitivity. Bruxism is primarily diagnosed based on the [[clinical]] presentation. History of complaints of disturbance from the clicking or grating sound by the accompanied partners. The most common [[symptoms]] of bruxism include involuntary rhythmic contractions of the masticator [[muscle]]<nowiki/>s during [[sleep]]. Removal of any offending agent responsible for bruxism is the primary step in the management. [[Surgery]] is the mainstay of [[treatment]] in the management of bruxism.
==Historical Perspective==
==Historical Perspective==
==Historical Perspective==


*In 1907 Marie Pielkiewics coined a french term 'La Bruxomanie"  for bruxism. <ref name="pmid21886404">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shetty S, Pitti V, Satish Babu CL, Surendra Kumar GP, Deepthi BC |title=Bruxism: a literature review |journal=J Indian Prosthodont Soc |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=141–8 |date=September 2010 |pmid=21886404 |pmc=3081266 |doi=10.1007/s13191-011-0041-5 |url=}}</ref>
*In 1907, Marie Pielkiewics coined the French term 'La Bruxomanie"  for bruxism. <ref name="pmid21886404">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shetty S, Pitti V, Satish Babu CL, Surendra Kumar GP, Deepthi BC |title=Bruxism: a literature review |journal=J Indian Prosthodont Soc |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=141–8 |date=September 2010 |pmid=21886404 |pmc=3081266 |doi=10.1007/s13191-011-0041-5 |url=}}</ref>
*In 1931, Frohman first coined the term English term bruxism.
*In 1931, Frohman first coined the English term bruxism.
 
==Classification==
Bruxism can be classified into awake bruxism and [[sleep]] bruxism based on the [[physiological]] [[sleep]] status of the individual.<ref name="pmid22976557">{{cite journal |vauthors=Thorpy MJ |title=Classification of sleep disorders |journal=Neurotherapeutics |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=687–701 |date=October 2012 |pmid=22976557 |pmc=3480567 |doi=10.1007/s13311-012-0145-6 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12531159">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bader G, Lavigne G |title=Sleep bruxism; an overview of an oromandibular sleep movement disorder. REVIEW ARTICLE |journal=Sleep Med Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=27–43 |date=February 2000 |pmid=12531159 |doi=10.1053/smrv.1999.0070 |url=}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Awake Bruxism/Diurnal Bruxism
!Sleep Bruxism/Nocturnal Bruxism
|-
|Day Time /Awake
|[[Sleep]]
|-
|Semi-Voluntary
|Stereotyped
|-
|Clenching predominant
|[[Teeth]] grinding
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="2" |Definitions
|-
|American Academy of Orofacial Pain (2008)
|[[Diurnal]] or [[nocturnal]] [[Parafunctional habit|parafunctional]] activity including clenching, bracing, gnashing, and grinding of the [[teeth]]. I
|-
|The Academy of Prosthodontics (2005)
|
*1. The [[Parafunctional habit|parafunctional]] grinding of [[teeth]].
*2. An [[oral]] habit consisting of involuntary rhythmic or spasmodic non-functional gnashing, grinding or clenching of [[teeth]], in other than [[chewing]] movements of the [[mandible]], which may lead to occlusal [[trauma]] – called also [[tooth]] grinding, occlusal neurosis
|-
|The International Classification of Sleep Disorders (2005)
|Sleep-related bruxism is an [[oral]] activity characterized by grinding or clenching of the [[teeth]] during [[sleep]], usually associated with sleep arousals.
|}
 
==Causes==
The [[etiology]] of bruxism can be categorized into three groups: [[psychosocial]] factors, peripheral factors, and pathophysiological factors.<ref name="pmid12531159">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bader G, Lavigne G |title=Sleep bruxism; an overview of an oromandibular sleep movement disorder. REVIEW ARTICLE |journal=Sleep Med Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=27–43 |date=February 2000 |pmid=12531159 |doi=10.1053/smrv.1999.0070 |url=}}</ref>
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! colspan="2" |Etiology of Bruxism
|-
|[[Psychological]]
|Common [[psychological]] factors responsible for bruxism include:
 
*[[Stress]]-induced bruxism
*[[Depression]]-associated bruxism
*[[Anxiety]]-related bruxism
|-
|Peripheral
|
*[[Caffeine]] intake
*[[Smoking]]
*[[Alcohol consumption]]
|-
|[[Pathological]]
|
*Problem with arousal mechanism during [[sleep]]
*Imbalance in the [[dopamine]] release in the [[basal ganglion]]
*
|}
==Pathophysiology==
 
*Bruxism is caused by the activation of [[reflex]]ive [[chewing]] activity<ref name="pmid18557915">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lavigne GJ, Khoury S, Abe S, Yamaguchi T, Raphael K |title=Bruxism physiology and pathology: an overview for clinicians |journal=J Oral Rehabil |volume=35 |issue=7 |pages=476–94 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18557915 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2842.2008.01881.x |url=}}</ref>
*[[Mastication|Chewing]] is a [[neuromuscular]] activity that is controlled by the [[reflex]] [[nerve]] pathways.
*During [[sleep]], the [[reflex]] part is active while the higher control is inactive, resulting in bruxism.
*As stated, bruxism is considered to have multifactorial [[etiology]]. Multifactorial [[etiology]] causes involving [[brain]] [[neurotransmitters]] or [[basal ganglia]].
*'''Pathophysiological Factors'''
**As bruxism often occurs during [[sleep]], the [[physiology]] of [[sleep]] has been studied extensively, especially the ‘arousal response’, in search of possible [[causes]] of a disorder.<ref name="pmid18557915">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lavigne GJ, Khoury S, Abe S, Yamaguchi T, Raphael K |title=Bruxism physiology and pathology: an overview for clinicians |journal=J Oral Rehabil |volume=35 |issue=7 |pages=476–94 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18557915 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2842.2008.01881.x |url=}}</ref>
**Arousal response is a sudden change in the depth of the [[sleep]] during which the individual either arrives in the lighter [[sleep]] stage or actually wakes up.
**Such a response is accompanied by gross body movements, increased [[heart rate]], [[respiratory]] changes, and increased [[muscle]] activity.
**It is derived that disturbances in the central [[neurotransmitter system]] may be involved in the [[etiology]] of bruxism.
**It is hypothesized that the direct and indirect pathways of the [[basal ganglion]], a group of five subcortical nuclei that are involved in the coordination of movements, is disturbed in bruxer.
**The direct output pathway goes directly from the stratum to the [[thalamus]] from where afferent signals project to the [[cerebral cortex]]. The indirect pathway, on the other hand, passes by several other nuclei before reaching it to the [[thalamus]].
**If there is an imbalance between the pathways, movement disorder results like [[Parkinson’s disease]].
**The imbalance occurs with the disturbances in the [[dopamine]]-mediated transmission of an [[action potential]]. In the case of bruxism there may be an imbalance in both pathways.
**Acute use of [[dopamine]] precursors like [[L-dopa]] inhibits bruxism activity and chronic long-term use of [[l-dopa]] results in increased bruxism activity. SSRTs ([[serotonin reuptake inhibitors]]), which exert an indirect influence on the [[dopaminergic system]], may cause bruxism after long-term use.
**[[Amphetamine]], which increases the [[dopamine]] concentration by facilitating its release has been observed to increase bruxism.
**[[Nicotine]] stimulates central [[dopaminergic]] activities, which might explain the finding that [[Cigarette smoking|cigarette smokers]] report bruxism two times more than the nonsmokers.
 
*'''Psychosocial Factors'''
**There is no proper description of conclusive nature of [[psychological]] factors role in bruxism because of the absence of large scale longitudinal trials.
 
===Associated Factors===


==Associated Factors==
*Disturbed [[sleep]] pattern/other [[sleep disorder]]s<ref name="Riskfactors-Stanford">Maurice M. Ohayon, MD, DSc, PhD; Kasey K. Li, DDS, MD and Christian Guilleminault, MD: "[http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/content/full/119/1/53 Risk Factors for Sleep Bruxism in the General Population]";Stanford University School of Medicine, Sleep Disorders Center, Stanford, CA;</ref><ref>Y. Kobayashi, M. Yokoyama, H. Shiga, and N. Namba: [http://iadr.confex.com/iadr/2004Hawaii/techprogram/abstract_44562.htm 1198 Sleep Condition and Bruxism in Bruxist], Nippon Dental University, Tokyo, Japan</ref> ([[obstructive sleep apnea]],<ref>Oksenberg A, Arons E.: "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=14592147&itool=iconabstr&itool=pubmed_docsum&query_hl=2 Sleep bruxism related to obstructive sleep apnea: the effect of continuous positive airway pressure.]";Sleep Disorders Unit, Loewenstein Hospital-Rehabilitation Center, P.O. Box 3, Raanana, Israel</ref> [[snoring]],<ref>Ng DK, Kwok KL, Poon G, Chau KW "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12683350&itool=iconabstr&itool=pubmed_docsum&query_hl=2 Habitual snoring and sleep bruxism in a paediatric outpatient population in Hong Kong.]" Department of Paediatrics, Kwong Wah Hospital, Waterloo Road, Hong Kong, SAR China.</ref> moderate daytime [[Somnolence|sleepiness]]<ref name="Riskfactors-Stanford" />)
*Disturbed sleep pattern/other [[sleep disorder]]s<ref name="Riskfactors-Stanford">Maurice M. Ohayon, MD, DSc, PhD; Kasey K. Li, DDS, MD and Christian Guilleminault, MD: "[http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/content/full/119/1/53 Risk Factors for Sleep Bruxism in the General Population]";Stanford University School of Medicine, Sleep Disorders Center, Stanford, CA;</ref><ref>Y. Kobayashi, M. Yokoyama, H. Shiga, and N. Namba: [http://iadr.confex.com/iadr/2004Hawaii/techprogram/abstract_44562.htm 1198 Sleep Condition and Bruxism in Bruxist], Nippon Dental University, Tokyo, Japan</ref> ([[obstructive sleep apnea]],<ref>Oksenberg A, Arons E.: "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=14592147&itool=iconabstr&itool=pubmed_docsum&query_hl=2 Sleep bruxism related to obstructive sleep apnea: the effect of continuous positive airway pressure.]";Sleep Disorders Unit, Loewenstein Hospital-Rehabilitation Center, P.O. Box 3, Raanana, Israel</ref> [[snoring]],<ref>Ng DK, Kwok KL, Poon G, Chau KW "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12683350&itool=iconabstr&itool=pubmed_docsum&query_hl=2 Habitual snoring and sleep bruxism in a paediatric outpatient population in Hong Kong.]" Department of Paediatrics, Kwong Wah Hospital, Waterloo Road, Hong Kong, SAR China.</ref> moderate daytime [[Somnolence|sleepiness]]<ref name="Riskfactors-Stanford"/>)
*[[Malocclusion]], in which the upper and lower [[teeth]] fit together in a dysfunctional way, typically through lateral asymmetry and dysocclusion of the front [[teeth]] through premature contact of back [[teeth]].<!--My text here needs to be reworded more technically-->
*[[Malocclusion]], in which the upper and lower teeth fit together in a dysfunctional way, typically through lateral asymmetry and dysocclusion of the front teeth through premature contact of back teeth.<!--My text here needs to be reworded more technically-->  
*Relatively high levels of consumption of caffeinated drinks and foods, such as [[coffee]], colas, and [[chocolate]]<ref name="Riskfactors-Stanford" />
*Relatively high levels of consumption of caffeinated drinks and foods, such as coffee, colas, and chocolate<ref name="Riskfactors-Stanford"/>
*High levels of [[alcohol consumption]]<ref name="Riskfactors-Stanford" />
*High levels of alcohol consumption<ref name="Riskfactors-Stanford"/>
*[[Smoking]]<ref name="Riskfactors-Stanford" />
*[[Smoking]]<ref name="Riskfactors-Stanford"/>
*High levels of [[anxiety]] and/or [[Stress (medicine)|stress]]<ref name="Riskfactors-Stanford" />
*High levels of [[anxiety]] and/or [[Stress (medicine)|stress]]<ref name="Riskfactors-Stanford"/>
*[[SSRI]]s
* [[SSRI]]s
*[[Digestive]] problems<!--bit vague; reference?-->
*Digestive problems<!--bit vague; reference?-->
*Hypersensitivity of the [[dopamine]] receptors in the [[brain]].
*Hypersensitivity of the [[dopamine]] receptors in the brain.
*Consumption of stimulant drugs and medications, such as those of the [[amphetamine]]-based family, such as [[MDMA]]<ref name="Riskfactors-Drugs">Winocur E, Gavish A, Voikovitch M, Emodi-Perlman A, Eli I: "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=12836498&dopt=AbstractPlus Drugs and bruxism: a critical review.]";Department of Occlusion and Behavioral Sciences, Maurice and Gabriela Goldschleger, School of Dental Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.</ref>
*Consumption of stimulant drugs and medications, such as those of the [[amphetamine]]-based family, such as [[MDMA]]<ref name="Riskfactors-Drugs">Winocur E, Gavish A, Voikovitch M, Emodi-Perlman A, Eli I: "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&list_uids=12836498&dopt=AbstractPlus Drugs and bruxism: a critical review.]";Department of Occlusion and Behavioral Sciences, Maurice and Gabriela Goldschleger, School of Dental Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.</ref>
*Excessive use of (i.e., frequent redosing and dependency on) [[gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid|GHB]] and similar [[GABA]]-inducing analogues such as [[Phenibut]] <ref name="Riskfactors-Drugs"/>  
*Excessive use of (i.e., frequent redosing and dependency on) [[gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid|GHB]] and similar [[GABA]]-inducing analogues such as [[Phenibut]] <ref name="Riskfactors-Drugs" />
*Disorders such as [[Huntington's disease|Huntington's]] and [[Parkinson's disease]]s <ref>[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/bruxism/DS00337 Bruxism/Teeth grinding - MayoClinic.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
*Disorders such as [[Huntington's disease|Huntington's]] and [[Parkinson's disease]]s <ref>[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/bruxism/DS00337 Bruxism/Teeth grinding - MayoClinic.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>


==History and Symptoms==
<br />
 
==Epidemiology and Demographics==
Bruxism often occurs during [[sleep]] and can even occur during short naps. Bruxism is one of the most common [[Sleep disorders|sleep disorder]]<nowiki/>s: 30 to 40 million Americans grind their [[teeth]] during sleep.
====Gender====
 
*Bruxism affects [[men]] and [[women]] equally.
 
====Age====
 
*Bruxism commonly affects individuals younger than 6 years of [[age]] and its [[incidence]] declines as [[age]] increases.
*
 
==Screening==
There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine [[screening]] for bruxism.
==Risk Factors==
Factors associated with an increased risk of bruxism include:


Bruxism can result in abnormal wear patterns of the [[Commonly used terms of relationship and comparison in dentistry|occlusal]] surface, abfractions and fractures in the teeth. This type of damage is categorised as a sign of [[occlusal trauma]].
*[https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Obstructive_sleep_apnea Obstructive sleep apnea]
*[https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Alcohol_abuse Alcohol abuse]
*[[Caffeine]] intake
*[https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Smoking Smoking]
*[https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Anxiety Anxiety]


Over time, dental damage will usually occur. Bruxism is the leading cause of occlusal trauma and a significant cause of tooth loss and gum recession.
==Natural History, Complications and Prognosis==
===Natural History===


In a typical case, the [[canine tooth|canines]] and [[incisor]]s of the opposing arches are moved against each other laterally, i.e. with a side-to-side action by the [[lateral pterygoid muscle]]s that lie medial to the [[temporomandibular joint]]s bilaterally. This movement abrades tooth structure, and can lead to the wearing down of the [[Commonly used terms of relationship and comparison in dentistry|incisal]] edges of the teeth. People with bruxism may also grind their [[Commonly used terms of relationship and comparison in dentistry|posterior]] teeth, which will wear down the [[cusp (dental)|cusp]]s of the occlusal surface.  Bruxing can be loud enough to wake a sleeping partner. Some individuals will clench the jaw without significant lateral movements.
*The [[symptoms]] of bruxism, usually develop in the first decade of life, and start with [[symptoms]] such as appearance of the first primary upper and lower anterior [[teeth]].
*The [[symptoms]] of bruxism typically develop in [[childhood]] and may persist into [[adult]] due to presence of other [[risk factors]].
*Usually bruxism follows a [[benign]] course.
*If left untreated, bruxism can lead to [[hypertrophy]] of [[masseter muscle]] accompanied by tenderness of [[TMJ]], which manifests as [[otalgia]].


Eventually, bruxing shortens and blunts the teeth being ground, and may lead to myofacial muscle pain and [[headache]]s. In severe, chronic cases, it can lead to [[arthritis]] of the [[temporomandibular joint]]s.
===Complications===
Common [[complications]] of bruxism are:


Most bruxers are not aware of their bruxism and only 5-10% go on to develop symptoms such as jaw pain and headache. Teeth hollowed by previous decay ([[caries]]), or dental drilling, may collapse, as the cyclic pressure exerted by bruxism is extremely taxing on the tooth structure.
*Tooth wear
*[[Tooth]] hypersensitivity
*[[Tooth]] mobility
*[[Pain]] in the [[temporomandibular joint]] (TMJ) or [[jaw]] musculature
*Temporal [[headache]],
*Poor [[sleep]]
*Signs of this parafunctional habit
**Indentation on the [[tongue]]
**Presence of [[linea alba]] along the biting plane of the [[buccal mucosa]]
**[[Gingival]] recessions


==Diagnosis==
==Diagnosis==
Bruxism is not the only cause of tooth wear. Over-vigorous brushing, abrasives in [[toothpaste]], acidic soft drinks and abrasive foods can also be contributing factors; each has characteristic wear patterns that a trained professional can identify.
===Diagnostic study of choice===
Bruxism is primarily diagnosed based on the clinical presentation.


The effects of bruxing may be quite advanced before sufferers are aware they brux. Abraded teeth are usually brought to the patient's attention during a routine dental examination. If enough [[enamel]] has been abraded, the softer [[dentine]] will be exposed and abrasion will accelerate. This opens the possibility of dental [[tooth decay|decay]] and tooth fracture, and in some people, [[gum recession]]. Early intervention by a dentist is advisable.
*History of tooth grinding during [[sleep]]
*Confirmation by parents or bed partners.


==Treatment==
<br />
There is no accepted cure for bruxism.<ref>Nissani, Moti: [http://www.oc-j.com/june00/Splint1.htm "When the Splint Fails: Non-Traditional Approaches to the Treatment of Bruxism"],Author's website, Wayne State University.</ref>A recently introduced device called the [[BiteStrip]] enables at-home overnight testing for sleep bruxism. It is proposed that this might help diagnose bruxism before damage appears on the teeth. The device is a miniature [[Electromyography|electromyograph]] machine that senses jaw muscle activity while the patient sleeps. A dentist can establish the frequency of bruxing, which helps in formulating a treatment plan. Anyone having major occlusal rehabilitation should be aware that bruxism can easily ruin [[prosthetic]] dental work.
===History===
 
*History of complaints of disturbance from the clicking or grating sound by the accompanied partners.
 
===Symptoms===
The most common [[symptoms]] of bruxism include:<ref name="MacedoMacedo2014">{{cite journal|last1=Macedo|first1=Cristiane R|last2=Macedo|first2=Elizeu C|last3=Torloni|first3=Maria R|last4=Silva|first4=Ademir B|last5=Prado|first5=Gilmar F|last6=Macedo|first6=Cristiane R|title=Pharmacotherapy for sleep bruxism|year=2014|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005578.pub2}}</ref>
 
*Involuntary rhythmic contractions of the masticator muscles during [[sleep]].
*Secondary [[symptoms]] may develop due to forceful grinding in some  [[patients]] which include:
**Morning [[headaches]]
**[[Jaw pain]]
**Clicking in the [[temporomandibular joint]]<nowiki/>s
*[[Dental]] deformities may be seen, however not [[disease]] specific, and not limited to:
**Thermal sensitivity in the [[teeth]]
**Hypermobility
**Need for [[dental]] restorations
**[[Tooth]] wear  on [[tooth]] surfaces that contact during biting or [[chewing]]
**Lateral grinding forces in particular can be particularly destructive.
*Severe cases of bruxism do present with:
**Injury to soft tissues of the [[mouth]]
**[[Dental fractures]]
**Difficulty with [[chewing]]
**[[Temporomandibular joint]] [[pain]] and dysfunction
**[[Head]] and [[neck pain]]
 
===Physical Examination===
Patients with  bruxism usually appear normal.
 
===Laboratory Findings===
There are no diagnostic [[laboratory]] findings associated with bruxism.
 
===Electrocardiogram===
There are no [[ECG]]findings associated with bruxism.
 
===X-ray===
There are no [[x-ray]] findings associated with bruxism.


===Mouthguards and Repositioning Splints===
===Echocardiography or Ultrasound===
Ongoing management of bruxism is based on minimizing the abrasion of tooth surfaces by the wearing of an acrylic [[mouthguard|dental guard]] or ''splint'', designed to the shape of an individual's upper or lower teeth from a bite mould. Mouthguards are obtained through visits to a dentist for measuring, fitting, and ongoing supervision. There are four possible goals of this treatment: constraint of the bruxing pattern such that serious damage to the temperomandibular joints is prevented, stabilization of the occlusion by minimizing the gradual changes to the positions of the teeth that typically occur with bruxism, prevention of tooth damage, and the enabling of a bruxism practitioner to judge — in broad terms — the extent and patterns of bruxism, through examination of the physical indentations on the surface of the splint. A dental guard is typically worn on a long-term basis during every night's sleep.
There are no [[echocardiography]]/[[ultrasound]] findings associated with bruxism .


Professional treatment is medically recommended to ensure proper fit, make ongoing adjustments as needed, and check that the [[occlusion]] (bite) has remained stable.<ref name="capp1999">Capp, N.J. ([[1999]]-[[03-13]].) [http://www.nature.com/bdj/journal/v186/n5/full/4800069a.html "Tooth surface loss; Part 3: Occlusion and splint therapy"]. ''British Dental Journal'', Vol. 186, No. 5, via nature.com. Retrieved on [[2007]]-[[10-14]].</ref> Monitoring of the mouthguard is suggested at each dental visit.<ref name="capp1999" />
===CT scan===
There are no [[CT scan]] findings associated with bruxism.


Another type of device sometimes given to a bruxer is a repositioning splint. A repositioning splint may look similar to a traditional night guard, but is designed to change the occlusion, or "bite," of the patient.  Randomly controlled trials with these type devices generally show no benefit <ref>Clark, GT, Minakuchi, H: Oral Appliances, TMDs An Evidence-Based Approach to Diagnosis and Treatment, Chicago, 2006, Quintessence, pp. 377-390</ref><ref>Dao, TTT, Lavigne, GJ.: Oral Splints: The Crutches For Temperomandibular Disorders and Bruxism? Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 9:345-361, 1998
===MRI===
</ref>over more conservative therapies and they should be avoided under most if not all circumstances.
There are no [[MRI]] findings associated with bruxism.


The NTI-tss device is another option that can be considered.  The NTI covers only the front teeth and prevents the rear molars from coming into contact, thus limiting the contraction of the temporalis muscle. The NTI must be fit by your dentist.
===Other Imaging Findings===
There are no other imaging findings associated with bruxism.


The efficacy of such devices is debated. Some writers propose that irreversible complications can result from the long-term use of mouthguards and repositioning splints.<ref>Widmalm, Sven E. [http://sitemaker.umich.edu/widmalm/files/useabusebs.pdf "Use and Abuse of Bite Splints"], (Website, lectures from author's homepage), University of Michigan, [[2004]]-[[10-27]]. Retrieved on [[2007]]-[[10-14]].</ref>
===Other Diagnostic Studies===
There are no other diagnostic studies associated with bruxism.


===Vitamin Supplements===
==Treatment==
There is limited evidence that suggests taking certain combinations of vitamin supplements may alleviate bruxism; calcium and vitamin C have been examined. <ref>Ploceniak, C. (1990.) [http://www.is.wayne.edu/mnissani/bruxnet/ploctran.htm" Bruxism and magnesium, my clinical experiences since 1980"] ''Rev Stomatol Chir Maxillofac'',  1990;91 Suppl 1:127. Translation from French by James Michels, Wayne State University. Retrieved on [[2007]]-[[10-15]].</ref>
===Medical Therapy===


===Biofeedback===
*Removal of any offending agent responsible for bruxism is the primary step in management.<ref name="MacedoMacedo2014">{{cite journal|last1=Macedo|first1=Cristiane R|last2=Macedo|first2=Elizeu C|last3=Torloni|first3=Maria R|last4=Silva|first4=Ademir B|last5=Prado|first5=Gilmar F|last6=Macedo|first6=Cristiane R|title=Pharmacotherapy for sleep bruxism|year=2014|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005578.pub2}}</ref><ref name="pmid21356412">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ommerborn MA, Taghavi J, Singh P, Handschel J, Depprich RA, Raab WH |title=Therapies most frequently used for the management of bruxism by a sample of German dentists |journal=J Prosthet Dent |volume=105 |issue=3 |pages=194–202 |date=March 2011 |pmid=21356412 |doi=10.1016/S0022-3913(11)60029-2 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17949541">{{cite journal |vauthors=Huynh N, Manzini C, Rompré PH, Lavigne GJ |title=Weighing the potential effectiveness of various treatments for sleep bruxism |journal=J Can Dent Assoc |volume=73 |issue=8 |pages=727–30 |date=October 2007 |pmid=17949541 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
Various biofeedback devices are currently available, but their effectiveness is as yet unproven. While anecdotal evidence suggests that they may be useful, some bruxism authorities remain unconvinced.<ref>Nissani, Moti. [http://www.is.wayne.edu/mnissani/bruxnet/nocures.htm "Unrecommended bruxism treatments."] Author's website, Wayne State University. Retrieved on [[2007]]-[[10-15]].</ref>  


One biofeedback mechanism that has significant promise was developed by Moti Nissani, PhD and is called [http://www.therabrux.com ''"The Taste-Based Approach to the Prevention of Teeth Clenching and Grinding." ''] The therapy involves suspending sealed packets containing a bad-tasting substance (e.g. hot sauce, vinegar, denatonium benzoate, etc.) between the rear molars using an orthodontic-style appliance. Any attempt to bring the teeth together will rupture the packets and alert the user to the habit. While no cure exists for bruxism, this approach, if implemented properly and rigorously, has promise to be an effective treatment for bruxism. Importantly, the Taste-Based Approach does not suffer from the risk of desensitization that other available sound-based biofeedback approaches may have. (There is effectively no limit to the aversive taste of certain substances. We can therefore be sure that some harmless substance exists that will alert anyone to the habit.)
*The wait-and-see approach is recommended in cases with medically induced bruxism, as spontaneous remission is ensured with the cessation of the offending agent.
*[[Pharmacotherapy]] mainly concentrated to alleviate [[symptoms]]
*[[Buspirone]] and [[Gabapentin]] are the two recommended medications to manage bruxism
**Preferred regimen 1 : [https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Buspirone Buspirone] 15 to 20 mg/day PO q12.
**Preferred regimen 2: [https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Gabapentin Gabapentin] 100 to 300 mg PO q24


One of these devices, the ''Oralsensor'', comprises a pneumatic pouch embedded in a soft polymer plate that fits over upper or lower teeth. When the teeth come together—to a threshold pressure set each night by the user—an alarm is sounded in an earpiece worn by the user. Another biofeedback device, [http://www.bruxcare.com ''GrindAlert''], is a battery-powered device that sounds a tone when it senses [[EMG]] (electromyographic) muscle activity in the [[temporalis]] muscles of the forehead. This device delivers nightly data on the number of bruxism events that last for at least two seconds, and the total duration of those events. The volume of the alarm and the sensitivity of the piezo device to EMG signals from the muscles are adjustable.
===Surgery===
Surgery is the mainstay of treatment in the management of bruxism.
====Indications====


In 2005, a new type of occlusive device was patented that produces a movement incompatible with teeth clenching. When nighttime bruxism occurs, people breathe through the nose. The device forces people to breathe through the mouth; by forcing the opening of the mouth, the device is claimed to stop clenching. The occlusive device has an electromyogram system that monitors the electric activity of the jaw muscle via wireless electrodes. These electrodes transfer jaw-muscle activity by radio frequency to an external monitoring system. Once the signal has been interpreted by the monitoring system, if a person clenches, the monitoring unit sends a radio frequency signal to a transceiver integrated in a mechanical actuator. The mechanical actuator has two occlusive flaps that block the nostrils, forcing breathing to occur through the mouth. Once the patient stops clenching, the flaps open, allowing breathing through the nose again. The occlusive device does not wake up people since it blocks nostrils slowly, and it never closes them completely to avoid sleep disruption.<ref>[http://www.bit.or.at/ik/ec-bbsshow8.php?ref1=05%20ES%20BCAV%200D7T&vQuelle=ecaustria.at&cc= "Abfrageergebnisse"]. Retrieved [[2007]]-[[10-15]].</ref>


===Meditation and Relaxation Techniques===
The treatment of bruxism is indicated when there are any of these possible consequences:<ref name="MacedoMacedo2014">{{cite journal|last1=Macedo|first1=Cristiane R|last2=Macedo|first2=Elizeu C|last3=Torloni|first3=Maria R|last4=Silva|first4=Ademir B|last5=Prado|first5=Gilmar F|last6=Macedo|first6=Cristiane R|title=Pharmacotherapy for sleep bruxism|year=2014|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005578.pub2}}</ref><ref name="pmid21356412">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ommerborn MA, Taghavi J, Singh P, Handschel J, Depprich RA, Raab WH |title=Therapies most frequently used for the management of bruxism by a sample of German dentists |journal=J Prosthet Dent |volume=105 |issue=3 |pages=194–202 |date=March 2011 |pmid=21356412 |doi=10.1016/S0022-3913(11)60029-2 |url=}}</ref>
Sufferers may find that [[meditation]] and [[relaxation techniques]] may help to reduce teeth grinding. Hypnotherapy can also be very effective.


===Repairing Damage to Teeth from Bruxism===
*Mechanical wear of the [[teeth]], which results in loss of occlusal morphology and flattening of the occlusal surfaces
Damaged teeth can be repaired by replacing the worn natural crown of the tooth with prosthetic [[Crown (dentistry)|crown]]s. Materials used to make crowns vary; some are less prone to breaking than others, and can last longer. Porcelain fused to metal crowns may be used in the [[anterior]] (front) of the mouth; in the [[posterior]], full gold crowns are preferred. All porcelain crowns are now becoming more and more common and work well for both anterior and posterior restorations. To protect the new crowns and dental implants, an [[occlusion|occlusal]] guard should be fabricated to wear during sleep.
*Hypersensitive [[teeth]]
*Loss of [[periodontal]] support
*[[Tooth]] fractures
*Restorations fractures, usually class I and class II restorations, fracture of [[crown]]s, and fixed partial [[prosthesis]]
*Restorations or [[dental implant]]s failure
*Hypertrophy of [[masticatory muscles]]
*Tenderness and stiffness in [[jaw]] [[muscles]]
*When bruxism leads to limited [[mouth]] opening
*[[Temporomandibular]][[pain]]
*[[Pain]] in the [[preauricular]] region
 
<br />


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}


[[Category:Sleep disorders]]
[[Category:Sleep disorders]]
[[Category:Neurology]]
[[Category:Neurology]]
[[Category:Psychiatry]]
[[Category:Psychiatry]]
 
[[Category:Up-To-Date]]
[[cs:Bruxismus]]
[[de:Bruxismus]]
[[es:Bruxismo]]
[[fr:Bruxisme]]
[[it:Bruxismo]]
[[lt:Bruksizmas]]
[[nl:Bruxisme]]
[[ja:ブラキシズム]]
[[pl:Bruksizm]]
[[pt:Bruxismo]]
[[ru:Бруксизм]]
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Bruxism
DiseasesDB 29661
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] ; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Aditya Ganti M.B.B.S. [2]

Overview

Bruxism is defined as repeated involuntary grinding and clenching of teeth which can occur either diurnal or nocturnally. In 1907, Marie Pielkiewics coined the French term 'La Bruxomanie" for bruxism. Bruxism can be classified into awake bruxism and sleep bruxism based on the physiological sleep status of the individual. The etiology of bruxism can be categorized into three groups:psychosocial factors, peripheral factors, and pathophysiological factors. Multifactorial etiology causes involving brain neurotransmitters or basal ganglia. Bruxism affects men and women equally. Factors associated with an increased risk of bruxism include obstructive sleep apnea, alcohol abuse, caffeine intake, smoking, and anxiety. The symptoms of bruxism usually develop in the first decade of life, and start with the appearance of the first primary upper and lower anterior teeth. Common complications of bruxism are tooth wear, and tooth hypersensitivity. Bruxism is primarily diagnosed based on the clinical presentation. History of complaints of disturbance from the clicking or grating sound by the accompanied partners. The most common symptoms of bruxism include involuntary rhythmic contractions of the masticator muscles during sleep. Removal of any offending agent responsible for bruxism is the primary step in the management. Surgery is the mainstay of treatment in the management of bruxism.

Historical Perspective

  • In 1907, Marie Pielkiewics coined the French term 'La Bruxomanie" for bruxism. [1]
  • In 1931, Frohman first coined the English term bruxism.

Classification

Bruxism can be classified into awake bruxism and sleep bruxism based on the physiological sleep status of the individual.[2][3]

Awake Bruxism/Diurnal Bruxism Sleep Bruxism/Nocturnal Bruxism
Day Time /Awake Sleep
Semi-Voluntary Stereotyped
Clenching predominant Teeth grinding
Definitions
American Academy of Orofacial Pain (2008) Diurnal or nocturnal parafunctional activity including clenching, bracing, gnashing, and grinding of the teeth. I
The Academy of Prosthodontics (2005)
  • 1. The parafunctional grinding of teeth.
  • 2. An oral habit consisting of involuntary rhythmic or spasmodic non-functional gnashing, grinding or clenching of teeth, in other than chewing movements of the mandible, which may lead to occlusal trauma – called also tooth grinding, occlusal neurosis
The International Classification of Sleep Disorders (2005) Sleep-related bruxism is an oral activity characterized by grinding or clenching of the teeth during sleep, usually associated with sleep arousals.

Causes

The etiology of bruxism can be categorized into three groups: psychosocial factors, peripheral factors, and pathophysiological factors.[3]

Etiology of Bruxism
Psychological Common psychological factors responsible for bruxism include:
Peripheral
Pathological

Pathophysiology

  • Bruxism is caused by the activation of reflexive chewing activity[4]
  • Chewing is a neuromuscular activity that is controlled by the reflex nerve pathways.
  • During sleep, the reflex part is active while the higher control is inactive, resulting in bruxism.
  • As stated, bruxism is considered to have multifactorial etiology. Multifactorial etiology causes involving brain neurotransmitters or basal ganglia.
  • Pathophysiological Factors
    • As bruxism often occurs during sleep, the physiology of sleep has been studied extensively, especially the ‘arousal response’, in search of possible causes of a disorder.[4]
    • Arousal response is a sudden change in the depth of the sleep during which the individual either arrives in the lighter sleep stage or actually wakes up.
    • Such a response is accompanied by gross body movements, increased heart rate, respiratory changes, and increased muscle activity.
    • It is derived that disturbances in the central neurotransmitter system may be involved in the etiology of bruxism.
    • It is hypothesized that the direct and indirect pathways of the basal ganglion, a group of five subcortical nuclei that are involved in the coordination of movements, is disturbed in bruxer.
    • The direct output pathway goes directly from the stratum to the thalamus from where afferent signals project to the cerebral cortex. The indirect pathway, on the other hand, passes by several other nuclei before reaching it to the thalamus.
    • If there is an imbalance between the pathways, movement disorder results like Parkinson’s disease.
    • The imbalance occurs with the disturbances in the dopamine-mediated transmission of an action potential. In the case of bruxism there may be an imbalance in both pathways.
    • Acute use of dopamine precursors like L-dopa inhibits bruxism activity and chronic long-term use of l-dopa results in increased bruxism activity. SSRTs (serotonin reuptake inhibitors), which exert an indirect influence on the dopaminergic system, may cause bruxism after long-term use.
    • Amphetamine, which increases the dopamine concentration by facilitating its release has been observed to increase bruxism.
    • Nicotine stimulates central dopaminergic activities, which might explain the finding that cigarette smokers report bruxism two times more than the nonsmokers.
  • Psychosocial Factors
    • There is no proper description of conclusive nature of psychological factors role in bruxism because of the absence of large scale longitudinal trials.

Associated Factors


Epidemiology and Demographics

Bruxism often occurs during sleep and can even occur during short naps. Bruxism is one of the most common sleep disorders: 30 to 40 million Americans grind their teeth during sleep.

Gender

Age

  • Bruxism commonly affects individuals younger than 6 years of age and its incidence declines as age increases.

Screening

There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for bruxism.

Risk Factors

Factors associated with an increased risk of bruxism include:

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

Natural History

Complications

Common complications of bruxism are:

Diagnosis

Diagnostic study of choice

Bruxism is primarily diagnosed based on the clinical presentation.

  • History of tooth grinding during sleep
  • Confirmation by parents or bed partners.


History

  • History of complaints of disturbance from the clicking or grating sound by the accompanied partners.

Symptoms

The most common symptoms of bruxism include:[11]

Physical Examination

Patients with bruxism usually appear normal.

Laboratory Findings

There are no diagnostic laboratory findings associated with bruxism.

Electrocardiogram

There are no ECGfindings associated with bruxism.

X-ray

There are no x-ray findings associated with bruxism.

Echocardiography or Ultrasound

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with bruxism .

CT scan

There are no CT scan findings associated with bruxism.

MRI

There are no MRI findings associated with bruxism.

Other Imaging Findings

There are no other imaging findings associated with bruxism.

Other Diagnostic Studies

There are no other diagnostic studies associated with bruxism.

Treatment

Medical Therapy

  • Removal of any offending agent responsible for bruxism is the primary step in management.[11][12][13]
  • The wait-and-see approach is recommended in cases with medically induced bruxism, as spontaneous remission is ensured with the cessation of the offending agent.
  • Pharmacotherapy mainly concentrated to alleviate symptoms
  • Buspirone and Gabapentin are the two recommended medications to manage bruxism
    • Preferred regimen 1 : Buspirone 15 to 20 mg/day PO q12.
    • Preferred regimen 2: Gabapentin 100 to 300 mg PO q24

Surgery

Surgery is the mainstay of treatment in the management of bruxism.

Indications

The treatment of bruxism is indicated when there are any of these possible consequences:[11][12]


References

  1. ↑ Shetty S, Pitti V, Satish Babu CL, Surendra Kumar GP, Deepthi BC (September 2010). "Bruxism: a literature review". J Indian Prosthodont Soc. 10 (3): 141–8. doi:10.1007/s13191-011-0041-5. PMC 3081266. PMID 21886404.
  2. ↑ Thorpy MJ (October 2012). "Classification of sleep disorders". Neurotherapeutics. 9 (4): 687–701. doi:10.1007/s13311-012-0145-6. PMC 3480567. PMID 22976557.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Bader G, Lavigne G (February 2000). "Sleep bruxism; an overview of an oromandibular sleep movement disorder. REVIEW ARTICLE". Sleep Med Rev. 4 (1): 27–43. doi:10.1053/smrv.1999.0070. PMID 12531159.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Lavigne GJ, Khoury S, Abe S, Yamaguchi T, Raphael K (July 2008). "Bruxism physiology and pathology: an overview for clinicians". J Oral Rehabil. 35 (7): 476–94. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2842.2008.01881.x. PMID 18557915.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Maurice M. Ohayon, MD, DSc, PhD; Kasey K. Li, DDS, MD and Christian Guilleminault, MD: "Risk Factors for Sleep Bruxism in the General Population";Stanford University School of Medicine, Sleep Disorders Center, Stanford, CA;
  6. ↑ Y. Kobayashi, M. Yokoyama, H. Shiga, and N. Namba: 1198 Sleep Condition and Bruxism in Bruxist, Nippon Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
  7. ↑ Oksenberg A, Arons E.: "Sleep bruxism related to obstructive sleep apnea: the effect of continuous positive airway pressure.";Sleep Disorders Unit, Loewenstein Hospital-Rehabilitation Center, P.O. Box 3, Raanana, Israel
  8. ↑ Ng DK, Kwok KL, Poon G, Chau KW "Habitual snoring and sleep bruxism in a paediatric outpatient population in Hong Kong." Department of Paediatrics, Kwong Wah Hospital, Waterloo Road, Hong Kong, SAR China.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Winocur E, Gavish A, Voikovitch M, Emodi-Perlman A, Eli I: "Drugs and bruxism: a critical review.";Department of Occlusion and Behavioral Sciences, Maurice and Gabriela Goldschleger, School of Dental Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
  10. ↑ Bruxism/Teeth grinding - MayoClinic.com
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Macedo, Cristiane R; Macedo, Elizeu C; Torloni, Maria R; Silva, Ademir B; Prado, Gilmar F; Macedo, Cristiane R (2014). "Pharmacotherapy for sleep bruxism". doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005578.pub2.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Ommerborn MA, Taghavi J, Singh P, Handschel J, Depprich RA, Raab WH (March 2011). "Therapies most frequently used for the management of bruxism by a sample of German dentists". J Prosthet Dent. 105 (3): 194–202. doi:10.1016/S0022-3913(11)60029-2. PMID 21356412.
  13. ↑ Huynh N, Manzini C, Rompré PH, Lavigne GJ (October 2007). "Weighing the potential effectiveness of various treatments for sleep bruxism". J Can Dent Assoc. 73 (8): 727–30. PMID 17949541.


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