Osteoporosis overview: Difference between revisions
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Although [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA)]] is the [[Gold standard (test)|gold standard]] method for measurement of [[Bone mineral density|bone mineral density (BMD)]] and also [[osteoporosis]], the limitations encountering its' usage may decrease the application and increase the need to find another [[modality]]. The limitations of [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DXA]] include [[ionizing radiation]] exposure, difficult portability due to huge size, and high cost. These problems have led to choose some methods with less harms and limitations, such as [[ultrasound]] (especially [[quantitative]]), which could diagnose [[osteoporosis]] with lower [[radiation]], lower price, and also higher availability. Most common site of [[ultrasound]] application is peripheral parts, such as [[calcaneus]] and [[Phalanx|phalanges]]. | Although [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA)]] is the [[Gold standard (test)|gold standard]] method for measurement of [[Bone mineral density|bone mineral density (BMD)]] and also [[osteoporosis]], the limitations encountering its' usage may decrease the application and increase the need to find another [[modality]]. The limitations of [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DXA]] include [[ionizing radiation]] exposure, difficult portability due to huge size, and high cost. These problems have led to choose some methods with less harms and limitations, such as [[ultrasound]] (especially [[quantitative]]), which could diagnose [[osteoporosis]] with lower [[radiation]], lower price, and also higher availability. Most common site of [[ultrasound]] application is peripheral parts, such as [[calcaneus]] and [[Phalanx|phalanges]]. | ||
===Other imaging findings=== | ===Other imaging findings=== | ||
The most important [[modality]] for measuring [[Bone mineral density|bone mineral density (BMD)]], that every [[osteoporosis]] diagnostic and [[therapeutic]] decision are based on, is [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA)]]. [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DEXA]] is a 2-dimensional image of a 3-demensional subject, mainly depends on size of the [[bone]] which is studied. Regarding the vast advantages of [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DEXA]], it seems that [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DEXA]] will remain the masterpiece of [[fracture]] risk assessment and also [[osteoporosis]] diagnosis in the future. | |||
Finite element modeling (FEM) is basically an [[engineering]] computer-based simulation software. FEM typically simulate the physical loading effects on materials. The effects may be strain or compression, while the subject determined as net-like elements connected to each other. | |||
[[Bone mineral density|BMD]] is focused on density and does not imply for microstructure or architecture of [[bones]]. One of the most powerful methods to determine the microstructure is [[trabecular bone]] score (TBS) as a complementary method for [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DEXA]]. | |||
===Other diagnostic studies=== | ===Other diagnostic studies=== | ||
Revision as of 18:38, 9 August 2017
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Osteoporosis Microchapters |
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Treatment |
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Medical Therapy |
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Osteoporosis overview On the Web |
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American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Osteoporosis overview |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Cafer Zorkun, M.D., Ph.D. [2], Raviteja Guddeti, M.B.B.S.[3]
Overview
Osteoporosis is a bone disease, characterized by lowered bone mineral density; leads to increased risk of fracture. The pathology is negative balance between old bone resorption and new bone formation. Aging, female gender, thin and small stature, Asian or Caucasian races, alcoholism, hypogonadism, and steroid abuse are among the primary risk factors associated with osteoporosis. It can be prevented with lifestyle modification, or calcium and vitamin D supplementation. Preventing falls in people with known or suspected osteoporosis is an established way to prevent fractures. Bisphosphonates, calcium, and vitamin D supplementation form the main stay of treatment.
Historical Perspective
Bone with holes, osteoporosis, is seen in over 4000 years old Egyptian mummies; showed the revealing sign of osteoporosis called "Dowager's Hump". Jean Lobstein, a French pathologist of 1830's, found that there are normal holes in every bones; but some people bones from specific age and diseases may have larger holes than normal ones. He eventually named theses kinds of bones as porous; thus the disease became osteoporosis.
Classification
There are many classification systems for osteoporosis disease. The most reliable two classification systems are based on the disease origin and severity. Based on origin, the disease classified to primary and secondary osteoporosis. There are three different severity for bone mass loss, include; osteopenia, osteoporosis, and severe osteoporosis.
Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of osteoporosis basically involves an imbalance between bone resorption and bone formation. Major factors that contribute to the development of osteoporosis include: estrogen deficit, and aging. The main pathway, through which these factors might lead to osteoporosis is reactive oxygen species (ROS) damage to osteocytes. Decreasing the capability of autophagy in osteocytes is another important issue; which make them vulnerable to oxidative stresses.
Causes
Any condition, which could lead to disturb the balance between bone formation and bone resorption, may be the cause of Osteoporosis. The most common causes of osteoporosis include but not limited to: aging, menopause, nutritional deficiency of calcium and/or vitamin D, chronic renal failure, immobility, hyperparathyroidism, and chronic glucocorticoid abuse.
Differentiating Osteoporosis from other Diseases
Osteoporosis must be differentiated from other diseases include: idiopathic transient osteoporosis of hip, osteomalacia, scurvy, osteogenesis imperfecta, multiple myeloma, homocystinuria, and hypermetabolic resorptive osteoporosis; which can all present with some similar features, too.
Epidemiology and Demographics
Osteoporosis is a major health problem involving 43.9% (43.4 million) of male and female population in the United States. The disease rate increased as people's age raised. The most prevalent age group of patients is 80 years and older. White females and African-American males have the highest frequency among the other races.
Risk Factors
Risk factors for osteoporosis disease are of two types, include:
- Non-modifiable: age, sex, menopause, and family history
- Modifiable (potentially): smoking, alcohol, immobility, glucocorticoid abuse, and proton pump inhibitor (PPI)
Screening
Today, risk of fracture due to osteoporosis is threatening one out of two postmenopausal women and also one out of five older men. The 10-year risk for any osteoporosis-related fractures in 65-year-old white woman with no other risk factor is 9.3%. Upon the guidelines of USPSTF, all women ≥ 65 years old along with women < 65 years old with high risk of fracture are target of screening for osteoporosis; but there is not any recommendation to screen men for the disease. There are two major methods, that is suggested to use for screening osteoporosis: dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) of both hip and lumbar spine bones, and quantitative ultrasonography of the calcaneus.
Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
With appropriate and timely usage of medications along with calcium and/or vitamin D supplementation, the outcome of osteoporosis is usually good. The only way, through which Osteoporosis can become complicated, is by the development of fractures. Apart from risk of death and other complications, osteoporotic fractures are associated with a reduced quality of life due to immobility; emotional problems may also raised as a consequence. As studies suggested, the impact of osteoporosis and also osteoporotic fractures on public life would be worse than lots of life threatening diseases; especially with aging.
Diagnosis
History and symptoms
Osteoporosis, actually has not any acute symptoms, especially in early stages. Gradually, when bone mineral density loss is intensified (i.e., postmenopausal or elderly), the main symptoms could be seen; which are usually consisted of bone pain and weakness. After a while, when osteoporosis become severed, the fractures happen. Then, the major signs of fractures appeared; which include bone pain and tenderness, shortness of height, and stooped posture.
Physical examination
Osteoporosis is generally asymptomatic during initial years; until the bone mass loss rich to the point that fractures occur. These fractures could be divided to acute and chronic ones; mostly involve femoral neck and vertebral bones, respectively. The main feature of femoral fracture is immobilization and the main feature of vertebral fracture is Dowager's hump appearance. Any other secondary causes of the disease (e.g., chronic corticosteroid use or hyperthyroidism) may have their own symptoms; signifying a risk factor for osteoporosis.
Laboratory findings
There is a limited role for laboratory tests in diagnosis of osteoporosis; however, they may be used for differentiating primary versus secondary causes of the disease. Lab tests for the diagnosis of osteoporosis include some baseline tests like complete blood count (CBC), serum calcium, phosphate, alkaline phosphatase, and 25-(OH)-vitamin D. There are also tests for diagnosing secondary osteoporosis, which include 24 hr serum calcium, serum protein electrophoresis, and serum thyroid hormones.
Electrocardiogram
There are no electrocardiogram (ECG) findings associated with osteoporosis.
X-ray
X-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of osteoporosis. The main finding on x-ray suggestive of osteoporosis is bone mass loss, identified with decreased bony trabecula in primary stages and then decreased cortical thickness. The most common bones monitored for osteoporosis evidences are femoral neck, lumbar vertebrae, and calcaneus. Plain radiography needs at least 30-50% of bone loss to demonstrate decreased bone density; therefore, it is not a very sensitive modality.
CT scan
Despite that bone mineral density (BMD) measurement may provide so much information about osteoporosis and also osteoporotic fracture risk, but some researchers suggest that it has a limited role in bone strength description. In order to describe the bone strength more precisely, it seems necessary to do quantitative assays such as dual energy X-ray absorbtiometery (DXA) and CT scan (especially volumetric quantitative CT (vQCT)). Modalities for assessing osteoporotic fracture risk, without any destruction or invasion, include high resolution CT (hrCT) and micro CT (μCT). The only tests that is possible in vivo are hrCT and vQCT.
MRI
Regarding that magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique is very precise in measuring trabecular bone structure, it could be a suitable surrogate for multiple sites bone biopsy. On the other hand, although 20% of skeleton consist of trabecular bones, but they have highest impression from metabolic stimuli; thus, in contrast with DXA which is measure both trabecular and cortical at the same time, MRI would be better choice. The most impressing aspect of MRI in diagnosing osteoporosis is the ability to take in vivo images of trabecular bones. The plain resolution starts at about 150 μm and slice thickness starts at 300 μm; measuring trabecular bones precisely.
Echocardiography or ultrasound
There are no echocardiography findings associated with osteoporosis.
Although dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is the gold standard method for measurement of bone mineral density (BMD) and also osteoporosis, the limitations encountering its' usage may decrease the application and increase the need to find another modality. The limitations of DXA include ionizing radiation exposure, difficult portability due to huge size, and high cost. These problems have led to choose some methods with less harms and limitations, such as ultrasound (especially quantitative), which could diagnose osteoporosis with lower radiation, lower price, and also higher availability. Most common site of ultrasound application is peripheral parts, such as calcaneus and phalanges.
Other imaging findings
The most important modality for measuring bone mineral density (BMD), that every osteoporosis diagnostic and therapeutic decision are based on, is dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). DEXA is a 2-dimensional image of a 3-demensional subject, mainly depends on size of the bone which is studied. Regarding the vast advantages of DEXA, it seems that DEXA will remain the masterpiece of fracture risk assessment and also osteoporosis diagnosis in the future.
Finite element modeling (FEM) is basically an engineering computer-based simulation software. FEM typically simulate the physical loading effects on materials. The effects may be strain or compression, while the subject determined as net-like elements connected to each other.
BMD is focused on density and does not imply for microstructure or architecture of bones. One of the most powerful methods to determine the microstructure is trabecular bone score (TBS) as a complementary method for DEXA.
Other diagnostic studies
There are no additional diagnostic findings for osteoporosis.
Treatment
Medical therapy
Drugs, especially bisphosphonates are the main medications in the treatment of osteoporosis. However, lifestyle changes are also emphasized. No treatment can completely reverse established osteoporosis. Medical management can only halt the progression of the disease process.
Surgery
Surgical therapy is employed for fractures caused by osteoporosis. Vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty are used to treat patients with vertebral compression fractures. For fractures of the hip open reduction and internal fixation is done.