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__NOTOC__
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{{Gallstone disease}}
{{Gallstone disease}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{LRO}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{HM}}


==Overview==
==Overview==
Common causes of gallstone disease include drug [[side effects]] and [[hematological]] conditions. Diagnosis of [[cirrhosis]] as a life-threatening cause of gallstone disease.
Common causes of [[Gallstone disease|gallstone]] disease include increasing [[Ageing|age]], [[Oral contraceptive|oral contraceptive pills]], [[pregnancy]], [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], and [[obesity]].  Life threatening causes include conditions causing hepatic and biliary [[cirrhosis]].
 
==Causes==
==Causes==
<div style="-webkit-user-select: none;">
===Life Threatening Causes===
===Life Threatening Causes===
Life threatening causes of gallstones include:<ref name="pmid2013429">{{cite journal |vauthors=Heaton KW, Braddon FE, Mountford RA, Hughes AO, Emmett PM |title=Symptomatic and silent gall stones in the community |journal=Gut |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=316–20 |year=1991 |pmid=2013429 |pmc=1378843 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*[[Biliary cirrhosis]]
*[[Biliary cirrhosis]]
*[[Cystic fibrosis]]
*[[Cystic fibrosis]]
*[[Liver cirrhosis]]
*[[Liver cirrhosis]]


===Common Causes===
===Most Common Causes===
Most common causes of gallstones include:<ref name="pmid8423030">{{cite journal |vauthors=Valdivieso V, Covarrubias C, Siegel F, Cruz F |title=Pregnancy and cholelithiasis: pathogenesis and natural course of gallstones diagnosed in early puerperium |journal=Hepatology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=1–4 |year=1993 |pmid=8423030 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2332595">{{cite journal |vauthors=Alvaro D, Angelico M, Gandin C, Ginanni Corradini S, Capocaccia L |title=Physico-chemical factors predisposing to pigment gallstone formation in liver cirrhosis |journal=J. Hepatol. |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=228–34 |year=1990 |pmid=2332595 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2642879">{{cite journal |vauthors=Maurer KR, Everhart JE, Ezzati TM, Johannes RS, Knowler WC, Larson DL, Sanders R, Shawker TH, Roth HP |title=Prevalence of gallstone disease in Hispanic populations in the United States |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=96 |issue=2 Pt 1 |pages=487–92 |year=1989 |pmid=2642879 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8272307">{{cite journal |vauthors=Grodstein F, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ |title=Pos<ref name="pmid2669662">{{cite journal |vauthors=Liddle RA, Goldstein RB, Saxton J |title=Gallstone formation during weight-reduction dieting |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=149 |issue=8 |pages=1750–3 |year=1989 |pmid=2669662 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18617493">{{cite journal |vauthors=Liu B, Beral V, Balkwill A, Green J, Sweetland S, Reeves G |title=Gallbladder disease and use of transdermal versus oral hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women: prospective cohort study |journal=BMJ |volume=337 |issue= |pages=a386 |year=2008 |pmid=18617493 |pmc=2500203 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9096577">{{cite journal |vauthors=De Santis A, Attili AF, Ginanni Corradini S, Scafato E, Cantagalli A, De Luca C, Pinto G, Lisi D, Capocaccia L |title=Gallstones and diabetes: a case-control study in a free-living population sample |journal=Hepatology |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=787–90 |year=1997 |pmid=9096577 |doi=10.1002/hep.510250401 |url=}}</ref>
*[[Aging]]
*[[Aging]]
*[[Clofibrate]]
*[[Combined oral contraceptive pill]]
*[[Combined oral contraceptive pill]]
*[[Diabetes]]
*[[Diabetes]]
*[[Fasting]]
*Drug induced
**[[Clofibrate]]
**[[Atazanavir]]
**[[Ceftriaxone]]
**[[Clofibrate]]
**[[Febuxostat]]
**[[Lanreotide]]
**[[Leflunomide]]
**[[Proton pump inhibitors]]
**[[Somatostatin]]
*[[Obesity]]
*[[Pregnancy]]
*[[Crohn's disease]]
 
===Less Common Causes===
Less common causes of gallstones include:<ref name="pmid8423030">{{cite journal |vauthors=Valdivieso V, Covarrubias C, Siegel F, Cruz F |title=Pregnancy and cholelithiasis: pathogenesis and natural course of gallstones diagnosed in early puerperium |journal=Hepatology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=1–4 |year=1993 |pmid=8423030 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2332595">{{cite journal |vauthors=Alvaro D, Angelico M, Gandin C, Ginanni Corradini S, Capocaccia L |title=Physico-chemical factors predisposing to pigment gallstone formation in liver cirrhosis |journal=J. Hepatol. |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=228–34 |year=1990 |pmid=2332595 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2642879">{{cite journal |vauthors=Maurer KR, Everhart JE, Ezzati TM, Johannes RS, Knowler WC, Larson DL, Sanders R, Shawker TH, Roth HP |title=Prevalence of gallstone disease in Hispanic populations in the United States |journal=Gastroenterology |volume=96 |issue=2 Pt 1 |pages=487–92 |year=1989 |pmid=2642879 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*[[Blood sugar|Fasting]]
*[[Hemolytic anemia]]
*[[Hemolytic anemia]]
*[[Inflammatory bowel disease]]
*[[Inflammatory bowel disease]]
*[[Obesity]]
*[[Williams syndrome|William's syndrome]]
*[[Pregnancy]]
*[[Ulcerative colitis]]
*[[Sickle-cell disease|Sickle cell disease]]


=== Causes by Organ System ===
=== Causes by Organ System ===
{|style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
{| style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | '''Cardiovascular'''
| style="width:25%" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" ; border="1" | '''Cardiovascular'''
|style="height:100px"; style="width:75%" border="1" bgcolor="Beige" | [[Williams syndrome]]
| style="width:75%" bgcolor="Beige" ; border="1" | [[Williams syndrome]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Chemical / poisoning'''
| '''Chemical / poisoning'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dermatologic'''
| '''Dermatologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Atazanavir]], [[Ceftriaxone]], [[Clofibrate]], [[Combined oral contraceptive pill]], [[Febuxostat]], [[Hormonal contraception]], [[Lanreotide]], [[Leflunomide]], [[Oxcarbazepine]],  [[Pasireotide]], [[Pergolide]], [[Pramipexole]], [[Proton pump inhibitors]], [[Rilpivirine]], [[Somatostatin]], [[Teduglutide]], [[Tiagabine]], [[Zonisamide]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Atazanavir]], [[Ceftriaxone]], [[Clofibrate]], [[Combined oral contraceptive pill]], [[Febuxostat]], [[Hormonal contraception]], [[Lanreotide]], [[Leflunomide]], [[Oxcarbazepine]],  [[Pasireotide]], [[Pergolide]], [[Pramipexole]], [[Proton pump inhibitors]], [[Rilpivirine]], [[Somatostatin]], [[Teduglutide]], [[Tiagabine]], [[Zonisamide]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-  
|-  
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Endocrine'''
| '''Endocrine'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Diabetes]], [[Somatostatinoma]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Diabetes]], [[Somatostatinoma]]
|-  
|-  
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Environmental'''
| '''Environmental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Crohn's disease]], [[Liver cirrhosis]], [[Ulcerative colitis]], [[Cystic fibrosis]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Crohn's disease]], [[Liver cirrhosis]], [[Ulcerative colitis]], [[Cystic fibrosis]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
| '''Genetic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Erythropoietic protoporphyria]], [[Hemochromatosis]], [[Hereditary spherocytosis]], [[Williams Syndrome ]], [[Hemoglobin E disease]], [[Hemolytic anemia]], [[Sickle cell disease]], [[Cystic fibrosis]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Erythropoietic protoporphyria]], [[Hemochromatosis]], [[Hereditary spherocytosis]], [[Williams Syndrome ]] , [[Hemoglobin E disease]], [[Hemolytic anemia]], [[Sickle cell disease]], [[Cystic fibrosis]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Hematologic'''
| '''Hematologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Hemoglobin E disease]], [[Hemolytic anemia]], [[Sickle cell disease]], [[Hemochromatosis]], [[Hereditary spherocytosis]], [[Erythropoietic protoporphyria]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Hemoglobin E disease]], [[Hemolytic anemia]], [[Sickle cell disease]], [[Hemochromatosis]], [[Hereditary spherocytosis]], [[Erythropoietic protoporphyria]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
| '''Iatrogenic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Long term intravenous nutrition]], [[Weight loss surgery]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Long term intravenous nutrition]], [[Weight loss surgery]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
| '''Infectious Disease'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Clonorchiasis]], [[Infection in the gallbladder]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Clonorchiasis]], [[Infection in the gallbladder]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Musculoskeletal / Ortho'''
| '''Musculoskeletal / Ortho'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Neurologic'''
| '''Neurologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Williams syndrome]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Williams syndrome]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Nutritional / Metabolic'''
| '''Nutritional / Metabolic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Hypercalcaemia]], [[Low-fibre, high-cholesterol diets]], [[Hemochromatosis]], [[Williams syndrome]], [[Erythropoietic protoporphyria]], [[Dieting]], [[Fasting]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Hypercalcaemia]], Low-fiber, High-cholesterol diets, [[Hemochromatosis]], [[Williams syndrome]], [[Erythropoietic protoporphyria]], [[Dieting]], [[Fasting]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Pregnancy]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Pregnancy]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Oncologic'''
| '''Oncologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Somatostatinoma]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Somatostatinoma]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Opthalmologic'''
| '''Opthalmologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Overdose / Toxicity'''
| '''Overdose / Toxicity'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Ceftriaxone]], [[Clofibrate]], [[Combined oral contraceptive pill]], [[Hormonal contraception]], [[Lanreotide]], [[Pasireotide]], [[Proton pump inhibitors]], [[Somatostatin]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Ceftriaxone]], [[Clofibrate]], [[Combined oral contraceptive pill]], [[Hormonal contraception]], [[Lanreotide]], [[Pasireotide]], [[Proton pump inhibitors]], [[Somatostatin]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Psychiatric'''
| '''Psychiatric'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Pulmonary'''
| '''Pulmonary'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Cystic fibrosis]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Cystic fibrosis]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Renal / Electrolyte'''
| '''Renal / Electrolyte'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheum / Immune / Allergy'''
| '''Rheum / Immune / Allergy'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Ulcerative colitis]], [[Crohn's disease]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Ulcerative colitis]], [[Crohn's disease]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Sexual'''
| '''Sexual'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Cystic fibrosis]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Cystic fibrosis]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
| '''Trauma'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Urologic'''
| '''Urologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dental'''
| '''Dental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
| '''Miscellaneous'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Aging]], [[Dieting]], [[Fasting]], [[Obesity]], [[Rapid weight loss]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Aging]], [[Dieting]], [[Fasting]], [[Obesity]], [[Rapid weight loss]]
|-
|-
|}
|}


=== Causes in Alphabetical Order ===
=== Causes in Alphabetical Order ===
{{columns-list|3|
{{columns-list|
*[[Abitrate]]
 
*[[Aging]]
*[[Aging]]
*[[Alpha thalassemia]]
*[[Alpha thalassemia]]
*[[Atromid-s]]
*[[Ausgem]]
*[[Beta thalassemia]]
*[[Beta thalassemia]]
*[[Biliary cirrhosis]]
*[[Biliary cirrhosis]]
Line 152: Line 166:
*[[Chronic liver disease]]
*[[Chronic liver disease]]
*[[Cirrhosis ]]
*[[Cirrhosis ]]
*[[Claripex]]
*[[Clofibrate]]
*[[Clofibrate]]
*[[Clonorchiasis]]
*[[Clonorchiasis]]
Line 159: Line 172:
*[[Cystic fibrosis]]
*[[Cystic fibrosis]]
*[[Diabetes]]
*[[Diabetes]]
*[[Dienoestrol]]
*[[Dieting]]
*[[Dieting]]
*[[Erythropoietic protoporphyria]]
*[[Erythropoietic protoporphyria]]
*[[Familial hyperlipoproteinemia]]
*[[Estriol]]
*[[Fasting]]
*[[Estrone]]
*Fasting
*[[Fenofibrate]]
*[[Fenofibrate]]
*[[Gemfibrizol]]
*[[Gemfibrozil]]
*[[Gemhexal]]
*[[Hemochromatosis]]
*[[Hemochromatosis]]
*[[Hemoglobin e disease]]
*[[Hemolytic anemia]]
*[[Hemolytic anemia]]
*[[Hereditary elliptocytosis]]
*[[Hereditary elliptocytosis]]
*[[Hereditary spherocytosis]]
*[[Hereditary spherocytosis]]
*[[Hormonal contraception]]
*[[Hormonal contraception]]
*[[Hypercalcaemia]]
*[[Hypercalcemia]]
*[[Hyperlipoproteinemia type 3]]
*Hyperlipoproteinemia type 3
*[[Infection in the gallbladder]]
*[[Infection in the gallbladder]]
*[[Jezil]]
*[[Kliogest]]
*[[Kolpon]]
*[[Lanreotide]]
*[[Lanreotide]]
*[[Lipazil]]
*[[Liver cirrhosis]]
*[[Liver cirrhosis]]
*[[Lofibra]]
*[[Lofibra]]
*[[Long term intravenous nutrition]]
*[[Long term intravenous nutrition]]
*[[Low-fibre, high-cholesterol diets]]
*Low-fibre, high-cholesterol diets
*[[Novo-fibrate]]
*[[Fibrates]]
*[[Obesity]]
*[[Obesity]]
*[[Oestriol]]
*[[Oestrone]]
*[[Ovestin ]]
*[[Pasireotide]]
*[[Pasireotide]]
*[[Pergolide]]
*[[Pergolide]]
*[[Pregnancy]]
*[[Pregnancy]]
*[[Proton pump inhibitors]]
*[[Proton pump inhibitors]]
*[[Protoporphyria erythropoietic]]
*[[Pyruvate kinase deficiency]]
*[[Pyruvate kinase deficiency]]
*[[Rapid weight loss]]
*[[Rapid weight loss]]
Line 205: Line 208:
*[[Spherocytosis]]
*[[Spherocytosis]]
*[[Tiagabine]]
*[[Tiagabine]]
*[[Tricor]]
*[[Triosephosphate isomerase 1]]
*[[Ulcerative colitis]]
*[[Ulcerative colitis]]
*[[Weight loss surgery]]
*[[Weight loss surgery]]
*[[Williams syndrome]]
*[[Williams syndrome]]
}}
}}
</div>


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}
{{WH}}
{{WS}}


[[Category:Gastroenterology]]
[[Category:Gastroenterology]]
[[Category:Hepatology]]
[[Category:Hepatology]]
[[Category:Surgery]]
[[Category:Surgery]]
[[Category:Primary care]]
[[Category:Disease]]
 
{{WH}}
{{WS}}

Latest revision as of 21:48, 29 July 2020

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Hadeel Maksoud M.D.[2]

Overview

Common causes of gallstone disease include increasing age, oral contraceptive pills, pregnancy, diabetes, and obesity. Life threatening causes include conditions causing hepatic and biliary cirrhosis.

Causes

Life Threatening Causes

Life threatening causes of gallstones include:[1]

Most Common Causes

Most common causes of gallstones include:[2][3][4][5][6]

Less Common Causes

Less common causes of gallstones include:[2][3][4]

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular Williams syndrome
Chemical / poisoning No underlying causes
Dermatologic No underlying causes
Drug Side Effect Atazanavir, Ceftriaxone, Clofibrate, Combined oral contraceptive pill, Febuxostat, Hormonal contraception, Lanreotide, Leflunomide, Oxcarbazepine, Pasireotide, Pergolide, Pramipexole, Proton pump inhibitors, Rilpivirine, Somatostatin, Teduglutide, Tiagabine, Zonisamide
Ear Nose Throat No underlying causes
Endocrine Diabetes, Somatostatinoma
Environmental No underlying causes
Gastroenterologic Crohn's disease, Liver cirrhosis, Ulcerative colitis, Cystic fibrosis
Genetic Erythropoietic protoporphyria, Hemochromatosis, Hereditary spherocytosis, Williams Syndrome , Hemoglobin E disease, Hemolytic anemia, Sickle cell disease, Cystic fibrosis
Hematologic Hemoglobin E disease, Hemolytic anemia, Sickle cell disease, Hemochromatosis, Hereditary spherocytosis, Erythropoietic protoporphyria
Iatrogenic Long term intravenous nutrition, Weight loss surgery
Infectious Disease Clonorchiasis, Infection in the gallbladder
Musculoskeletal / Ortho No underlying causes
Neurologic Williams syndrome
Nutritional / Metabolic Hypercalcaemia, Low-fiber, High-cholesterol diets, Hemochromatosis, Williams syndrome, Erythropoietic protoporphyria, Dieting, Fasting
Obstetric/Gynecologic Pregnancy
Oncologic Somatostatinoma
Opthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose / Toxicity Ceftriaxone, Clofibrate, Combined oral contraceptive pill, Hormonal contraception, Lanreotide, Pasireotide, Proton pump inhibitors, Somatostatin
Psychiatric No underlying causes
Pulmonary Cystic fibrosis
Renal / Electrolyte No underlying causes
Rheum / Immune / Allergy Ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease
Sexual Cystic fibrosis
Trauma No underlying causes
Urologic No underlying causes
Dental No underlying causes
Miscellaneous Aging, Dieting, Fasting, Obesity, Rapid weight loss

Causes in Alphabetical Order

References

  1. ↑ Heaton KW, Braddon FE, Mountford RA, Hughes AO, Emmett PM (1991). "Symptomatic and silent gall stones in the community". Gut. 32 (3): 316–20. PMC 1378843. PMID 2013429.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Valdivieso V, Covarrubias C, Siegel F, Cruz F (1993). "Pregnancy and cholelithiasis: pathogenesis and natural course of gallstones diagnosed in early puerperium". Hepatology. 17 (1): 1–4. PMID 8423030.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Alvaro D, Angelico M, Gandin C, Ginanni Corradini S, Capocaccia L (1990). "Physico-chemical factors predisposing to pigment gallstone formation in liver cirrhosis". J. Hepatol. 10 (2): 228–34. PMID 2332595.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Maurer KR, Everhart JE, Ezzati TM, Johannes RS, Knowler WC, Larson DL, Sanders R, Shawker TH, Roth HP (1989). "Prevalence of gallstone disease in Hispanic populations in the United States". Gastroenterology. 96 (2 Pt 1): 487–92. PMID 2642879.
  5. ↑ Liu B, Beral V, Balkwill A, Green J, Sweetland S, Reeves G (2008). "Gallbladder disease and use of transdermal versus oral hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women: prospective cohort study". BMJ. 337: a386. PMC 2500203. PMID 18617493.
  6. ↑ De Santis A, Attili AF, Ginanni Corradini S, Scafato E, Cantagalli A, De Luca C, Pinto G, Lisi D, Capocaccia L (1997). "Gallstones and diabetes: a case-control study in a free-living population sample". Hepatology. 25 (4): 787–90. doi:10.1002/hep.510250401. PMID 9096577.

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