Diabetes mellitus type 2 risk factors: Difference between revisions

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{{Diabetes mellitus type 2}}
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==Overview==
Common [[risk factor|risk factors]] in the development of [[diabetes mellitus type 2]] include [[family history]], [[obesity]], [[Ageing|aging]], [[smoking]] and sedentary life style.
 
==Risk Factors==
===Common Risk Factors===
*Common [[risk factor|risk factors]] in the development of [[diabetes type 2]] include:<ref name="NerurkarBellou201811">{{cite journal|last1=Nerurkar|first1=Pratibha V.|last2=Bellou|first2=Vanesa|last3=Belbasis|first3=Lazaros|last4=Tzoulaki|first4=Ioanna|last5=Evangelou|first5=Evangelos|title=Risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus: An exposure-wide umbrella review of meta-analyses|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=13|issue=3|year=2018|pages=e0194127|issn=1932-6203|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0194127}}</ref><ref name="pmid23052052">{{cite journal |vauthors=Scott RA, Langenberg C, Sharp SJ, Franks PW, Rolandsson O, Drogan D, van der Schouw YT, Ekelund U, Kerrison ND, Ardanaz E, Arriola L, Balkau B, Barricarte A, Barroso I, Bendinelli B, Beulens JW, Boeing H, de Lauzon-Guillain B, Deloukas P, Fagherazzi G, Gonzalez C, Griffin SJ, Groop LC, Halkjaer J, Huerta JM, Kaaks R, Khaw KT, Krogh V, Nilsson PM, Norat T, Overvad K, Panico S, Rodriguez-Suarez L, Romaguera D, Romieu I, Sacerdote C, Sánchez MJ, Spijkerman AM, Teucher B, Tjonneland A, Tumino R, van der A DL, Wark PA, McCarthy MI, Riboli E, Wareham NJ |title=The link between family history and risk of type 2 diabetes is not explained by anthropometric, lifestyle or genetic risk factors: the EPIC-InterAct study |journal=Diabetologia |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=60–9 |year=2013 |pmid=23052052 |pmc=4038917 |doi=10.1007/s00125-012-2715-x |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11118026">{{cite journal |vauthors=Meigs JB, Cupples LA, Wilson PW |title=Parental transmission of type 2 diabetes: the Framingham Offspring Study |journal=Diabetes |volume=49 |issue=12 |pages=2201–7 |year=2000 |pmid=11118026 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24733192">{{cite journal |vauthors=Selvin E, Parrinello CM, Sacks DB, Coresh J |title=Trends in prevalence and control of diabetes in the United States, 1988-1994 and 1999-2010 |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=160 |issue=8 |pages=517–25 |year=2014 |pmid=24733192 |pmc=4442608 |doi=10.7326/M13-2411 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12503980">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, Dietz WH, Vinicor F, Bales VS, Marks JS |title=Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related health risk factors, 2001 |journal=JAMA |volume=289 |issue=1 |pages=76–9 |year=2003 |pmid=12503980 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21128002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nguyen NT, Nguyen XM, Lane J, Wang P |title=Relationship between obesity and diabetes in a US adult population: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999-2006 |journal=Obes Surg |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=351–5 |year=2011 |pmid=21128002 |pmc=3040808 |doi=10.1007/s11695-010-0335-4 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid1737857">{{cite journal |vauthors=Friedman JE, Dohm GL, Leggett-Frazier N, Elton CW, Tapscott EB, Pories WP, Caro JF |title=Restoration of insulin responsiveness in skeletal muscle of morbidly obese patients after weight loss. Effect on muscle glucose transport and glucose transporter GLUT4 |journal=J. Clin. Invest. |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=701–5 |year=1992 |pmid=1737857 |pmc=442905 |doi=10.1172/JCI115638 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7988316">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chan JM, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC |title=Obesity, fat distribution, and weight gain as risk factors for clinical diabetes in men |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=17 |issue=9 |pages=961–9 |year=1994 |pmid=7988316 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="HuttunenSyrjänen2012">{{cite journal|last1=Huttunen|first1=R|last2=Syrjänen|first2=J|title=Obesity and the risk and outcome of infection|journal=International Journal of Obesity|volume=37|issue=3|year=2012|pages=333–340|issn=0307-0565|doi=10.1038/ijo.2012.62}}</ref><ref name="pmid2589303">{{cite journal |vauthors=Feskens EJ, Kromhout D |title=Cardiovascular risk factors and the 25-year incidence of diabetes mellitus in middle-aged men. The Zutphen Study |journal=Am. J. Epidemiol. |volume=130 |issue=6 |pages=1101–8 |year=1989 |pmid=2589303 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7888928">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rimm EB, Chan J, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC |title=Prospective study of cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and the risk of diabetes in men |journal=BMJ |volume=310 |issue=6979 |pages=555–9 |year=1995 |pmid=7888928 |pmc=2548937 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16186287">{{cite journal |vauthors=Foy CG, Bell RA, Farmer DF, Goff DC, Wagenknecht LE |title=Smoking and incidence of diabetes among U.S. adults: findings from the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=28 |issue=10 |pages=2501–7 |year=2005 |pmid=16186287 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="CichoszJensen2020">{{cite journal|last1=Cichosz|first1=Simon Lebech|last2=Jensen|first2=Morten Hasselstrøm|last3=Hejlesen|first3=Ole|title=Associations between smoking, glucose metabolism and lipid levels: A cross-sectional study|journal=Journal of Diabetes and its Complications|year=2020|pages=107649|issn=10568727|doi=10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2020.107649}}</ref><ref name="pmid26954518">{{cite journal |vauthors=Crump C, Sundquist J, Winkleby MA, Sieh W, Sundquist K |title=Physical Fitness Among Swedish Military Conscripts and Long-Term Risk for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Cohort Study |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=164 |issue=9 |pages=577–84 |year=2016 |pmid=26954518 |pmc=4861045 |doi=10.7326/M15-2002 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7888928" /><ref name="pmid15328324">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schulze MB, Manson JE, Ludwig DS, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Hu FB |title=Sugar-sweetened beverages, weight gain, and incidence of type 2 diabetes in young and middle-aged women |journal=JAMA |volume=292 |issue=8 |pages=927–34 |year=2004 |pmid=15328324 |doi=10.1001/jama.292.8.927 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17513405">{{cite journal |vauthors=Montonen J, Järvinen R, Knekt P, Heliövaara M, Reunanen A |title=Consumption of sweetened beverages and intakes of fructose and glucose predict type 2 diabetes occurrence |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=137 |issue=6 |pages=1447–54 |year=2007 |pmid=17513405 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23620057">{{cite journal |vauthors=Romaguera D, Norat T, Wark PA, Vergnaud AC, Schulze MB, van Woudenbergh GJ, Drogan D, Amiano P, Molina-Montes E, Sánchez MJ, Balkau B, Barricarte A, Beulens JW, Clavel-Chapelon F, Crispim SP, Fagherazzi G, Franks PW, Grote VA, Huybrechts I, Kaaks R, Key TJ, Khaw KT, Nilsson P, Overvad K, Palli D, Panico S, Quirós JR, Rolandsson O, Sacerdote C, Sieri S, Slimani N, Spijkerman AM, Tjonneland A, Tormo MJ, Tumino R, van den Berg SW, Wermeling PR, Zamara-Ros R, Feskens EJ, Langenberg C, Sharp SJ, Forouhi NG, Riboli E, Wareham NJ |title=Consumption of sweet beverages and type 2 diabetes incidence in European adults: results from EPIC-InterAct |journal=Diabetologia |volume=56 |issue=7 |pages=1520–30 |year=2013 |pmid=23620057 |doi=10.1007/s00125-013-2899-8 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26199070">{{cite journal |vauthors=Imamura F, O'Connor L, Ye Z, Mursu J, Hayashino Y, Bhupathiraju SN, Forouhi NG |title=Consumption of sugar sweetened beverages, artificially sweetened beverages, and fruit juice and incidence of type 2 diabetes: systematic review, meta-analysis, and estimation of population attributable fraction |journal=BMJ |volume=351 |issue= |pages=h3576 |year=2015 |pmid=26199070 |pmc=4510779 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12197996">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fung TT, Hu FB, Pereira MA, Liu S, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC |title=Whole-grain intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective study in men |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=76 |issue=3 |pages=535–40 |year=2002 |pmid=12197996 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17760498">{{cite journal |vauthors=de Munter JS, Hu FB, Spiegelman D, Franz M, van Dam RM |title=Whole grain, bran, and germ intake and risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective cohort study and systematic review |journal=PLoS Med. |volume=4 |issue=8 |pages=e261 |year=2007 |pmid=17760498 |pmc=1952203 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040261 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15998896">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Dam RM, Hu FB |title=Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review |journal=JAMA |volume=294 |issue=1 |pages=97–104 |year=2005 |pmid=15998896 |doi=10.1001/jama.294.1.97 |url=}}</ref>
**[[Family history]]
***People with a first degree relative with [[diabetes mellitus type 2]] have a 2-3 fold increased [[risk factor|risk]] of developing [[diabetes mellitus type 2]]
***Positive [[family history]] of [[diabetes mellitus type 2]] in parents increases the [[risk factor|risk]] by 5-6 folds.
**[[Ageing|Aging]]
**Older age at [[menarche]]
**[[Ethnicity and health|Ethnicity]]
***[[Prevalence]] of [[diabetes mellitus type 2]] is high among American Indians, Alaska natives, non-Hispanic blacks and Mexican Americans.
**[[Obesity]]
***High [[incidence]] of [[impaired glucose tolerance]] and [[diabetes mellitus type 2]] have been reported mores in [[patient|patients]] with increased body [[weight]] and a higher [[BMI]].
***Increased waist circumference or an increased waist-to-hip ratio, increase the [[risk factor|risk]] of [[diabetes mellitus type 2]].
***Decreased hip circumference is related to higher chance of [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|diabetes type 2]] development.
**[[Smoking]]
***Lower [[insulin]] sensitivity and higher blood glucose level has been found in smokers.
***Result of a [[cross-sectional study]] using data from [[National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey]], from 2005 to 2014, showed opposing data, demonstrated lower [[oral glucose tolerance test]] ([[OGTT]]) in [[smoking|smokers]]. Furthermore this study showed higher level of [[triglyceride]] and [[Low density lipoprotein|LDL-cholesterol]] and lower level of [[High density lipoprotein|HDL]] in [[smoking|smokers]].
**Sedentary life style
***Sedentary life style and low physical activity even without [[weight gain]], is associated with an increased risk of [[diabetes mellitus type 2]].
***Habits such as long hours of television watching have been reported as [[Risk factor|risk factors]] of [[diabetes mellitus type 2]].
**Dietary habits
***Western diet consists of processed red meat, high fat dairy products, sugar and sweets (as in sugar-sweetened beverages)
***Mediterranean diet rich in [[Fruit|fruits]], [[vegetables]] and [[whole grains]] are associated with lower risk of [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|diabetes mellitus type 2]].
***Higher [[coffee]] consumption is associated with a lower risk of [[diabetes mellitus type 2]] (lowest among people who consume more than 6 cups per day).
***Low intake if [[heme iron]] also increases the risk of [[diabetes mellitus type 2]].
***Moderate [[alcohol]] consumption is associated with lower risk of [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|diabetes mellitus type 2]].
**[[medication|Meditations]]:
***[[Desogestrel and Ethinyl Estradiol]]
***[[Dexamethasone]]
***[[Estropipate]]
***[[goserelin]]
***[[Indinavir]]
***[[interferon alfacon-1]]
***[[Pasireotide]]
***[[Pegylated interferon alfa-2b]]
***[[Pergolide]]
***[[Ritonavir]]
***[[Saquinavir mesylate]]
***[[Tipranavir]]
**Medical conditions:
***[[Gestational diabetes]]
***High [[systolic blood pressure]],
***[[Metabolic syndrome]]
***[[Premature birth|Preterm birth]]
 
===Less Common Risk Factors===
*Less common [[risk factor|risk factors]] in the development of [[diabetes mellitus type 2]] include:<ref name="NerurkarBellou201810">{{cite journal|last1=Nerurkar|first1=Pratibha V.|last2=Bellou|first2=Vanesa|last3=Belbasis|first3=Lazaros|last4=Tzoulaki|first4=Ioanna|last5=Evangelou|first5=Evangelos|title=Risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus: An exposure-wide umbrella review of meta-analyses|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=13|issue=3|year=2018|pages=e0194127|issn=1932-6203|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0194127}}</ref><ref name="pmid15562019">{{cite journal| author=Meigs JB, Dupuis J, Herbert AG, Liu C, Wilson PW, Cupples LA| title=The insulin gene variable number tandem repeat and risk of type 2 diabetes in a population-based sample of families and unrelated men and women. | journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab | year= 2005 | volume= 90 | issue= 2 | pages= 1137-43 | pmid=15562019 | doi=10.1210/jc.2004-1212 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15562019 }}</ref><ref name="NerurkarBellou20186">{{cite journal|last1=Nerurkar|first1=Pratibha V.|last2=Bellou|first2=Vanesa|last3=Belbasis|first3=Lazaros|last4=Tzoulaki|first4=Ioanna|last5=Evangelou|first5=Evangelos|title=Risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus: An exposure-wide umbrella review of meta-analyses|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=13|issue=3|year=2018|pages=e0194127|issn=1932-6203|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0194127}}</ref>
**[[Air pollution]] and Particulate Matter (PM10)
**A follow-up study in a population from the U.K. showed that class III homozygosity of [[insulin]] [[gene]] was related to higher risk for [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type 2 diabetes]] in women, but not in men.
**Biomarkers:
***Elevation in the following biomarkers are related to higher chance of [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|diabetes type 2]]:
****[[Alanine transaminase]] ([[Alanine transaminase|ALT]])
****[[Gamma-glutamyl transferase]] ([[Gamma-glutamyl transferase|GGT]])
****[[Uric acid]]
****[[C-reactive protein]] ([[C-reactive protein|CRP]])
***Reduction in the following biomarkers are related to higher chance of [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|diabetes type 2]]:
****[[Adiponectin]]
****[[Vitamin D]]
**[[SARS-CoV-2]] (a subtype of [[coronavirus]] that causes [[COVID-19|coronavirus disease 2019]])
 
===Risk Factors for Type 2 Diabetes in Children===
*[[Overweight]]
**Defined as [[Body mass index|BMI]]>85th percentile or weight for height >85th percentile, or weight >120% of ideal for height.
*[[Obesity]]
*[[Family history]] of [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type 2 diabetes]] in first or second degree relative
*[[Ethnicity and health|Ethnicity]]
**[[Prevalence]] of [[diabetes mellitus type 2]] is high among American Indians, Alaska natives, non-Hispanic blacks and Mexican Americans.
*Signs of [[insulin resistance]] (or associated conditions) such as [[acanthosis nigricans]], [[hypertension]], [[dyslipidemia]], [[polycystic ovary syndrome]] or small-for-[[gestational age]] [[birth weight]].
*Maternal history of [[diabetes]] or [[GDM]] during the child’s gestation<ref name="pmid23264422">{{cite journal| author=American Diabetes Association| title=Standards of medical care in diabetes--2013. | journal=Diabetes Care | year= 2013 | volume= 36 Suppl 1 | issue= | pages= S11-66 | pmid=23264422 | doi=10.2337/dc13-S011 | pmc=PMC3537269 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23264422 }} </ref>
 
===HbA1c===
*A [[systematic review]] of [[Glycosylated hemoglobin|HbA1c]] levels with future risk of developing [[diabetes]] by Zhang et al.<ref>{{Cite journal
| author = [[Xuanping Zhang]], [[Edward W. Gregg]], [[David F. Williamson]], [[Lawrence E. Barker]], [[William Thomas]], [[Kai McKeever Bullard]], [[Giuseppina Imperatore]], [[Desmond E. Williams]] & [[Ann L. Albright]]
| title = A1C level and future risk of diabetes: a systematic review
| journal = [[Diabetes care]]
| volume = 33
| issue = 7
| pages = 1665–1673
| year = 2010
| month = July
  | doi = 10.2337/dc09-1939
| pmid = 20587727
 
}}</ref> showed that the risk of [[diabetes]] increased steeply in patients with [[Glycosylated hemoglobin|HbA1c]] levels across the range between 5 and 6.5%. It seems to be a better predictor of [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]] and [[cardiovascular]] outcomes than the [[Blood glucose|fasting blood glucose]] test.
* The results of this study is tabulated below:
<table>
{| class="wikitable" border="1" style="text-align:center; width:500px;"
|- style="background:#CDC9C9"
|'''HbA1c'''
|'''5 year DM incidence rate'''
|- style="background:#CDC9C9"
|≤ 5%
|Around 0.1%
|- style="background:#CDC9C9"
|5.5 to 6%
|Between 9 to 25%
|- style="background:#CDC9C9"
|6 to 6.5%
|25 to 50%
|- style="background:#CDC9C9"
|}
 
*Also [[patient|patients]] with [[Glycosylated hemoglobin|HbA1c]]'s more than 6% had a [[relative risk]] 20 times higher compared to those in lower [[Glycosylated hemoglobin|HbA1c]] group (≤5%). Hence, the [[patient|patients]] with [[Glycosylated hemoglobin|HbA1c]] levels in the [[Prediabetes|prediabetic]] range should be counselled about lifestyle modifications and weight reduction strategies in order to lower their risk. This should be followed with vigilant follow up visits and close scrutiny, particularly in high risk [[patient|patients]].
 
===Genetic Syndromes===
*Various [[Heredity|hereditary]] conditions may feature [[diabetes]], for example [[myotonic dystrophy]] and [[Friedreich's ataxia]] and [[Wolfram's syndrome]].
*[[Wolfram's syndrome]] is an [[autosomal recessive]] [[neurodegenerative disorder]] that first becomes evident in childhood. It consists of [[diabetes insipidus]], [[diabetes mellitus]], [[optic atrophy]], and [[deafness]], hence the acronym DIDMOAD.<ref name="AMN">{{cite journal |author=Barrett TG |title=Mitochondrial diabetes, DIDMOAD and other inherited diabetes syndromes |journal=Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=325-43 |year=2001|pmid=11554774 |doi=10.1053/beem.2001.0149}}</ref>


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}


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[[Category:Medicine]]
[[Category:Endocrinology]]
[[Category:Autoimmune diseases]]
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Latest revision as of 18:52, 23 October 2020

Diabetes mellitus main page

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1];Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Seyedmahdi Pahlavani, M.D. [2]Anahita Deylamsalehi, M.D.[3]Template:Dima Nimri

Overview

Common risk factors in the development of diabetes mellitus type 2 include family history, obesity, aging, smoking and sedentary life style.

Risk Factors

Common Risk Factors

Less Common Risk Factors

Risk Factors for Type 2 Diabetes in Children

HbA1c

HbA1c 5 year DM incidence rate
≤ 5% Around 0.1%
5.5 to 6% Between 9 to 25%
6 to 6.5% 25 to 50%
  • Also patients with HbA1c's more than 6% had a relative risk 20 times higher compared to those in lower HbA1c group (≤5%). Hence, the patients with HbA1c levels in the prediabetic range should be counselled about lifestyle modifications and weight reduction strategies in order to lower their risk. This should be followed with vigilant follow up visits and close scrutiny, particularly in high risk patients.

Genetic Syndromes

References

  1. ↑ Nerurkar, Pratibha V.; Bellou, Vanesa; Belbasis, Lazaros; Tzoulaki, Ioanna; Evangelou, Evangelos (2018). "Risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus: An exposure-wide umbrella review of meta-analyses". PLOS ONE. 13 (3): e0194127. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0194127. ISSN 1932-6203.
  2. ↑ Scott RA, Langenberg C, Sharp SJ, Franks PW, Rolandsson O, Drogan D, van der Schouw YT, Ekelund U, Kerrison ND, Ardanaz E, Arriola L, Balkau B, Barricarte A, Barroso I, Bendinelli B, Beulens JW, Boeing H, de Lauzon-Guillain B, Deloukas P, Fagherazzi G, Gonzalez C, Griffin SJ, Groop LC, Halkjaer J, Huerta JM, Kaaks R, Khaw KT, Krogh V, Nilsson PM, Norat T, Overvad K, Panico S, Rodriguez-Suarez L, Romaguera D, Romieu I, Sacerdote C, Sánchez MJ, Spijkerman AM, Teucher B, Tjonneland A, Tumino R, van der A DL, Wark PA, McCarthy MI, Riboli E, Wareham NJ (2013). "The link between family history and risk of type 2 diabetes is not explained by anthropometric, lifestyle or genetic risk factors: the EPIC-InterAct study". Diabetologia. 56 (1): 60–9. doi:10.1007/s00125-012-2715-x. PMC 4038917. PMID 23052052.
  3. ↑ Meigs JB, Cupples LA, Wilson PW (2000). "Parental transmission of type 2 diabetes: the Framingham Offspring Study". Diabetes. 49 (12): 2201–7. PMID 11118026.
  4. ↑ Selvin E, Parrinello CM, Sacks DB, Coresh J (2014). "Trends in prevalence and control of diabetes in the United States, 1988-1994 and 1999-2010". Ann. Intern. Med. 160 (8): 517–25. doi:10.7326/M13-2411. PMC 4442608. PMID 24733192.
  5. ↑ Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, Dietz WH, Vinicor F, Bales VS, Marks JS (2003). "Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related health risk factors, 2001". JAMA. 289 (1): 76–9. PMID 12503980.
  6. ↑ Nguyen NT, Nguyen XM, Lane J, Wang P (2011). "Relationship between obesity and diabetes in a US adult population: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999-2006". Obes Surg. 21 (3): 351–5. doi:10.1007/s11695-010-0335-4. PMC 3040808. PMID 21128002.
  7. ↑ Friedman JE, Dohm GL, Leggett-Frazier N, Elton CW, Tapscott EB, Pories WP, Caro JF (1992). "Restoration of insulin responsiveness in skeletal muscle of morbidly obese patients after weight loss. Effect on muscle glucose transport and glucose transporter GLUT4". J. Clin. Invest. 89 (2): 701–5. doi:10.1172/JCI115638. PMC 442905. PMID 1737857.
  8. ↑ Chan JM, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC (1994). "Obesity, fat distribution, and weight gain as risk factors for clinical diabetes in men". Diabetes Care. 17 (9): 961–9. PMID 7988316.
  9. ↑ Huttunen, R; Syrjänen, J (2012). "Obesity and the risk and outcome of infection". International Journal of Obesity. 37 (3): 333–340. doi:10.1038/ijo.2012.62. ISSN 0307-0565.
  10. ↑ Feskens EJ, Kromhout D (1989). "Cardiovascular risk factors and the 25-year incidence of diabetes mellitus in middle-aged men. The Zutphen Study". Am. J. Epidemiol. 130 (6): 1101–8. PMID 2589303.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Rimm EB, Chan J, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC (1995). "Prospective study of cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and the risk of diabetes in men". BMJ. 310 (6979): 555–9. PMC 2548937. PMID 7888928.
  12. ↑ Foy CG, Bell RA, Farmer DF, Goff DC, Wagenknecht LE (2005). "Smoking and incidence of diabetes among U.S. adults: findings from the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study". Diabetes Care. 28 (10): 2501–7. PMID 16186287.
  13. ↑ Cichosz, Simon Lebech; Jensen, Morten Hasselstrøm; Hejlesen, Ole (2020). "Associations between smoking, glucose metabolism and lipid levels: A cross-sectional study". Journal of Diabetes and its Complications: 107649. doi:10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2020.107649. ISSN 1056-8727.
  14. ↑ Crump C, Sundquist J, Winkleby MA, Sieh W, Sundquist K (2016). "Physical Fitness Among Swedish Military Conscripts and Long-Term Risk for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Cohort Study". Ann. Intern. Med. 164 (9): 577–84. doi:10.7326/M15-2002. PMC 4861045. PMID 26954518.
  15. ↑ Schulze MB, Manson JE, Ludwig DS, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Hu FB (2004). "Sugar-sweetened beverages, weight gain, and incidence of type 2 diabetes in young and middle-aged women". JAMA. 292 (8): 927–34. doi:10.1001/jama.292.8.927. PMID 15328324.
  16. ↑ Montonen J, Järvinen R, Knekt P, Heliövaara M, Reunanen A (2007). "Consumption of sweetened beverages and intakes of fructose and glucose predict type 2 diabetes occurrence". J. Nutr. 137 (6): 1447–54. PMID 17513405.
  17. ↑ Romaguera D, Norat T, Wark PA, Vergnaud AC, Schulze MB, van Woudenbergh GJ, Drogan D, Amiano P, Molina-Montes E, Sánchez MJ, Balkau B, Barricarte A, Beulens JW, Clavel-Chapelon F, Crispim SP, Fagherazzi G, Franks PW, Grote VA, Huybrechts I, Kaaks R, Key TJ, Khaw KT, Nilsson P, Overvad K, Palli D, Panico S, Quirós JR, Rolandsson O, Sacerdote C, Sieri S, Slimani N, Spijkerman AM, Tjonneland A, Tormo MJ, Tumino R, van den Berg SW, Wermeling PR, Zamara-Ros R, Feskens EJ, Langenberg C, Sharp SJ, Forouhi NG, Riboli E, Wareham NJ (2013). "Consumption of sweet beverages and type 2 diabetes incidence in European adults: results from EPIC-InterAct". Diabetologia. 56 (7): 1520–30. doi:10.1007/s00125-013-2899-8. PMID 23620057.
  18. ↑ Imamura F, O'Connor L, Ye Z, Mursu J, Hayashino Y, Bhupathiraju SN, Forouhi NG (2015). "Consumption of sugar sweetened beverages, artificially sweetened beverages, and fruit juice and incidence of type 2 diabetes: systematic review, meta-analysis, and estimation of population attributable fraction". BMJ. 351: h3576. PMC 4510779. PMID 26199070.
  19. ↑ Fung TT, Hu FB, Pereira MA, Liu S, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC (2002). "Whole-grain intake and the risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective study in men". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 76 (3): 535–40. PMID 12197996.
  20. ↑ de Munter JS, Hu FB, Spiegelman D, Franz M, van Dam RM (2007). "Whole grain, bran, and germ intake and risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective cohort study and systematic review". PLoS Med. 4 (8): e261. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040261. PMC 1952203. PMID 17760498.
  21. ↑ van Dam RM, Hu FB (2005). "Coffee consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review". JAMA. 294 (1): 97–104. doi:10.1001/jama.294.1.97. PMID 15998896.
  22. ↑ Nerurkar, Pratibha V.; Bellou, Vanesa; Belbasis, Lazaros; Tzoulaki, Ioanna; Evangelou, Evangelos (2018). "Risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus: An exposure-wide umbrella review of meta-analyses". PLOS ONE. 13 (3): e0194127. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0194127. ISSN 1932-6203.
  23. ↑ Meigs JB, Dupuis J, Herbert AG, Liu C, Wilson PW, Cupples LA (2005). "The insulin gene variable number tandem repeat and risk of type 2 diabetes in a population-based sample of families and unrelated men and women". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 90 (2): 1137–43. doi:10.1210/jc.2004-1212. PMID 15562019.
  24. ↑ Nerurkar, Pratibha V.; Bellou, Vanesa; Belbasis, Lazaros; Tzoulaki, Ioanna; Evangelou, Evangelos (2018). "Risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus: An exposure-wide umbrella review of meta-analyses". PLOS ONE. 13 (3): e0194127. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0194127. ISSN 1932-6203.
  25. ↑ American Diabetes Association (2013). "Standards of medical care in diabetes--2013". Diabetes Care. 36 Suppl 1: S11–66. doi:10.2337/dc13-S011. PMC 3537269. PMID 23264422.
  26. ↑ Xuanping Zhang, Edward W. Gregg, David F. Williamson, Lawrence E. Barker, William Thomas, Kai McKeever Bullard, Giuseppina Imperatore, Desmond E. Williams & Ann L. Albright (2010). "A1C level and future risk of diabetes: a systematic review". Diabetes care. 33 (7): 1665–1673. doi:10.2337/dc09-1939. PMID 20587727. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  27. ↑ Barrett TG (2001). "Mitochondrial diabetes, DIDMOAD and other inherited diabetes syndromes". Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 15 (3): 325–43. doi:10.1053/beem.2001.0149. PMID 11554774.

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