Polycystic kidney disease differentiating polycystic kidney disease from other diseases: Difference between revisions
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! rowspan="2" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Disease | ! rowspan="2" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Disease | ||
! colspan="3" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Symptoms | ! colspan="3" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Symptoms | ||
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! style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Histology | ! style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Histology | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |1. | | style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Polycystic kidney disease]] | ||
|<nowiki>+</nowiki> | |||
|<nowiki>+</nowiki> | |||
|<nowiki>+ (from hypertension)</nowiki> | |||
|<nowiki>+</nowiki> | |||
|– | |||
| | |||
Ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of polycystic kidney disease. Findings on an ultrasound diagnostic of polycystic kidney disease include:<ref name="pmid25786098">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chapman AB, Devuyst O, Eckardt KU, Gansevoort RT, Harris T, Horie S, Kasiske BL, Odland D, Pei Y, Perrone RD, Pirson Y, Schrier RW, Torra R, Torres VE, Watnick T, Wheeler DC |title=Autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD): executive summary from a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Controversies Conference |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=17–27 |date=July 2015 |pmid=25786098 |pmc=4913350 |doi=10.1038/ki.2015.59 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18945943">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pei Y, Obaji J, Dupuis A, Paterson AD, Magistroni R, Dicks E, Parfrey P, Cramer B, Coto E, Torra R, San Millan JL, Gibson R, Breuning M, Peters D, Ravine D |title=Unified criteria for ultrasonographic diagnosis of ADPKD |journal=J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=205–12 |date=January 2009 |pmid=18945943 |pmc=2615723 |doi=10.1681/ASN.2008050507 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*At least three unilateral or bilateral [[cysts]] in patients 15 – 39 years old | |||
*Atleast two [[cysts]] in each [[kidney]] in patients 40 – 59 years old | |||
*Atleast four [[cysts]] in each [[kidney]] in patients 60 years of age or older | |||
| | |||
[[Renal]] CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of polycystic kidney disease. Findings on CT scan diagnostic of ADPKD include: | |||
* Numerous [[renal]] [[cysts]] of varying size and shape with little intervening [[parenchyma]] with water [[attenuation]] and very thin wall. | |||
* Reduction in [[sinus]] [[fat]] due to expansion of the [[cortex]] | |||
* Occasional complex [[cysts]] with hyperdense appearance, with possible septations or calcifications | |||
* Multiple [[homogeneous]] and hypoattenuating [[cystic]] lesions in the [[liver]] in patients with [[liver]] involvement | |||
| | |||
*On microscopic histopathological analysis, interstitial fibrosis, tubular atrophy, thickening and lamellation of tubular basement membranes, microcysts and negative immunofluorescence for complement and immunoglobulin are characteristic findings of ADPKD.<ref name="pmid12234310">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stavrou C, Koptides M, Tombazos C, Psara E, Patsias C, Zouvani I, Kyriacou K, Hildebrandt F, Christofides T, Pierides A, Deltas CC |title=Autosomal-dominant medullary cystic kidney disease type 1: clinical and molecular findings in six large Cypriot families |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=1385–94 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12234310 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1755.2002.kid581.x |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24509297">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bleyer AJ, Kmoch S, Antignac C, Robins V, Kidd K, Kelsoe JR, Hladik G, Klemmer P, Knohl SJ, Scheinman SJ, Vo N, Santi A, Harris A, Canaday O, Weller N, Hulick PJ, Vogel K, Rahbari-Oskoui FF, Tuazon J, Deltas C, Somers D, Megarbane A, Kimmel PL, Sperati CJ, Orr-Urtreger A, Ben-Shachar S, Waugh DA, McGinn S, Bleyer AJ, Hodanová K, Vylet'al P, Živná M, Hart TC, Hart PS |title=Variable clinical presentation of an MUC1 mutation causing medullary cystic kidney disease type 1 |journal=Clin J Am Soc Nephrol |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=527–35 |date=March 2014 |pmid=24509297 |pmc=3944763 |doi=10.2215/CJN.06380613 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21775974">{{cite journal |vauthors=Faguer S, Decramer S, Chassaing N, Bellanné-Chantelot C, Calvas P, Beaufils S, Bessenay L, Lengelé JP, Dahan K, Ronco P, Devuyst O, Chauveau D |title=Diagnosis, management, and prognosis of HNF1B nephropathy in adulthood |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=80 |issue=7 |pages=768–76 |date=October 2011 |pmid=21775974 |doi=10.1038/ki.2011.225 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20378641">{{cite journal |vauthors=Heidet L, Decramer S, Pawtowski A, Morinière V, Bandin F, Knebelmann B, Lebre AS, Faguer S, Guigonis V, Antignac C, Salomon R |title=Spectrum of HNF1B mutations in a large cohort of patients who harbor renal diseases |journal=Clin J Am Soc Nephrol |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=1079–90 |date=June 2010 |pmid=20378641 |pmc=2879303 |doi=10.2215/CJN.06810909 |url=}}</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Wilms' tumor|Wilms tumor]] | | style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Wilms' tumor|Wilms tumor]] | ||
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**[[Fibrous connective tissue|Fibrous tissue.]] | **[[Fibrous connective tissue|Fibrous tissue.]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Renal cell carcinoma]] | | style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Renal cell carcinoma]] | ||
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|The histological pattern of renal cell [[carcinoma]] depends whether it is [[Papillary|papillary,]] [[chromophobe]] or [[collecting duct]] renal cell carcinoma. | |The histological pattern of renal cell [[carcinoma]] depends whether it is [[Papillary|papillary,]] [[chromophobe]] or [[collecting duct]] renal cell carcinoma. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Malignant rhabdoid tumor|Rhabdoid kidney disease]] | | style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Malignant rhabdoid tumor|Rhabdoid kidney disease]] | ||
| + | | + | ||
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* [[Malignant]] rhabdoid tumor is characterized by the round blue tumor cells of high cellularity composed of atypical cells with eccentric nuclei, small nucleoli, and abundant amounts of [[eosinophilic]] cytoplasm with frequent mitotic figures. | * [[Malignant]] rhabdoid tumor is characterized by the round blue tumor cells of high cellularity composed of atypical cells with eccentric nuclei, small nucleoli, and abundant amounts of [[eosinophilic]] cytoplasm with frequent mitotic figures. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Pheochromocytoma]] | | style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Pheochromocytoma]] | ||
|– | |– | ||
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* On microscopic pathology, [[Pheochromocytoma]] typically demonstrates a nesting (Zellballen) pattern on microscopy. This pattern is composed of well–defined clusters of tumor cells containing [[eosinophilic]] cytoplasm separated by fibrovascular [[stroma]]. | * On microscopic pathology, [[Pheochromocytoma]] typically demonstrates a nesting (Zellballen) pattern on microscopy. This pattern is composed of well–defined clusters of tumor cells containing [[eosinophilic]] cytoplasm separated by fibrovascular [[stroma]]. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Burkitt's lymphoma|Burkitt lymphoma]] | | style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Burkitt's lymphoma|Burkitt lymphoma]] | ||
| +/– (in non–endemic or sporadic form of the disease) | | +/– (in non–endemic or sporadic form of the disease) | ||
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::*The tumour cells are the ''sky'' | ::*The tumour cells are the ''sky'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Intussusception]] | | style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Intussusception]] | ||
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* Intussusception occurs if there is an imbalance between the longitudinal and radial [[smooth muscle]] forces of [[intestine]] that maintain its normal structure. This imbalance leads to a segment of [[intestine]] to invaginate into another segment and cause entero–enteral intussusception. [[Etiology]] of intussusception is either idiopathic or [[Pathology|pathologic]] (lead point). | * Intussusception occurs if there is an imbalance between the longitudinal and radial [[smooth muscle]] forces of [[intestine]] that maintain its normal structure. This imbalance leads to a segment of [[intestine]] to invaginate into another segment and cause entero–enteral intussusception. [[Etiology]] of intussusception is either idiopathic or [[Pathology|pathologic]] (lead point). | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Hydronephrosis]] | | style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Hydronephrosis]] | ||
|<nowiki>+</nowiki> | |<nowiki>+</nowiki> | ||
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* The kidney undergoes extensive dilation with atrophy and thinning of the renal cortex. | * The kidney undergoes extensive dilation with atrophy and thinning of the renal cortex. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Dysplasia|Dysplastic kidney]] | | style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Dysplasia|Dysplastic kidney]] | ||
|N/A | |N/A | ||
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* MCKD is the result of abnormal differentiation of the renal parenchyma. | * MCKD is the result of abnormal differentiation of the renal parenchyma. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Neuroblastoma|Pediatric Neuroblastoma]] | | style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Neuroblastoma|Pediatric Neuroblastoma]] | ||
|<nowiki>+</nowiki> | |<nowiki>+</nowiki> | ||
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:*Absence of [[glycogen]] | :*Absence of [[glycogen]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Rhabdomyosarcoma|Pediatric Rhabdomyosarcoma]] | | style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Rhabdomyosarcoma|Pediatric Rhabdomyosarcoma]] | ||
|<nowiki>+</nowiki> | |<nowiki>+</nowiki> | ||
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* Rhadbomyosarcoma has an appearance similar to the other round blue cell tumors such as [[Ewing sarcoma]] and [[Osteoblastoma|small cell osteoblastoma]]. | * Rhadbomyosarcoma has an appearance similar to the other round blue cell tumors such as [[Ewing sarcoma]] and [[Osteoblastoma|small cell osteoblastoma]]. | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Mesoblastic nephroma]] | | style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |[[Mesoblastic nephroma]] | ||
|<nowiki>+</nowiki> | |<nowiki>+</nowiki> |
Revision as of 15:41, 30 July 2018
Polycystic kidney disease Microchapters |
Differentiating Polycystic kidney disease from other Diseases |
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: M. Khurram Afzal, MD [2]
Overview
Autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease must be differentiated from other diseases that cause renal cysts, such as simple renal cysts, medullary sponge kidney, tuberous sclerosis complex, Von hippel–lindau disease.
Differentiating Polycystic kidney disease from other Diseases
- Autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease must be differentiated from other diseases that may cause renal cysts, such as simple renal cysts, medullary sponge kidney, tuberous sclerosis complex, von Hippel-Lindau disease.
Differentiating polycystic kidney disease from other diseases
Diseases | Clinical manifestations | Para–clinical findings | Gold standard | Additional findings | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Symptoms | Physical examination | |||||||||||
Lab Findings | Imaging | Histopathology | ||||||||||
Flank/abdominal pain | Polyuria | Hematuria | Hepatomegaly | Bilateral flank masses | Hypertension | Urinalysis | Ultrasound | CT scan | ||||
Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD)[1] | + | + | + | + | + | + |
|
|
Ultrasound | Extrarenal manifestations: | ||
Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD)[2] | + | + | + | + | + | + |
|
|
Ultrasound | Extrarenal manifestations: | ||
Simple renal cyst[3] | – | – | – | – | + | – | – |
|
– |
|
– |
|
Medullary sponge kidney[4][5] | + | +/– | + | – | + | – |
|
|
– |
| ||
Tuberous sclerosis complex[6][7] | +/– | +/– | +/– | – | + | – | – |
|
|
– |
| |
Von Hippel-Lindau disease[8][9] | + | +/– | + | – | + | – | – |
|
|
CT scan |
Disease | Symptoms | Signs | Diagnosis | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abdominal Pain | Hematuria | Headache | Abdominal mass | Abdominal tenderness | Ultrasonography | CT scan | Histology | |
Polycystic kidney disease | + | + | + (from hypertension) | + | – |
Ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of polycystic kidney disease. Findings on an ultrasound diagnostic of polycystic kidney disease include:[10][11] |
Renal CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of polycystic kidney disease. Findings on CT scan diagnostic of ADPKD include:
|
|
Wilms tumor | + | + | – | + | + |
|
|
|
Renal cell carcinoma | + | + | +/– | + | – |
|
Both CT and MRI may be used to detect neoplastic masses that may define renal cell carcinoma or metastasis of the primary cancer. CT scan and use of intravenous (IV) contrast is generally used for work–up and follow–up of patients with renal cell carcinoma. | The histological pattern of renal cell carcinoma depends whether it is papillary, chromophobe or collecting duct renal cell carcinoma. |
Rhabdoid kidney disease | + | + | – | + | – |
|
|
|
Pheochromocytoma | – | – | + (as a part of the hypertension paroxysm) | – | – |
|
The following findings may be observed on CT scan:[20]
|
|
Burkitt lymphoma | +/– (in non–endemic or sporadic form of the disease) | – | – | – | – |
|
|
|
Intussusception | + | – | – | +/– | + |
|
|
|
Hydronephrosis | + | +/– | – | – | + (CVA tenderness in case of pyelonephritis) |
|
|
|
Dysplastic kidney | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
MCDK is usually diagnosed by ultrasound examination before birth.
|
| |
Pediatric Neuroblastoma | + | – | – | +/– | +/– |
|
|
|
Pediatric Rhabdomyosarcoma | + | +/– | +/– | – | +/– | On CT scan, rhabdomyosarocma is characterized by:
|
| |
Mesoblastic nephroma | + | + | – | + | – |
|
|
Classic mesoblastic nephroma
Cellular mesoblastic nephroma
Mixed mesoblastic nephroma
|
References
- ↑ Gabow PA (July 1993). "Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease". N. Engl. J. Med. 329 (5): 332–42. doi:10.1056/NEJM199307293290508. PMID 8321262.
- ↑ Adeva M, El-Youssef M, Rossetti S, Kamath PS, Kubly V, Consugar MB, Milliner DM, King BF, Torres VE, Harris PC (January 2006). "Clinical and molecular characterization defines a broadened spectrum of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD)". Medicine (Baltimore). 85 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1097/01.md.0000200165.90373.9a. PMID 16523049.
- ↑ Ravine D, Gibson RN, Donlan J, Sheffield LJ (December 1993). "An ultrasound renal cyst prevalence survey: specificity data for inherited renal cystic diseases". Am. J. Kidney Dis. 22 (6): 803–7. PMID 8250026.
- ↑ Gambaro G, Feltrin GP, Lupo A, Bonfante L, D'Angelo A, Antonello A (February 2006). "Medullary sponge kidney (Lenarduzzi-Cacchi-Ricci disease): a Padua Medical School discovery in the 1930s". Kidney Int. 69 (4): 663–70. doi:10.1038/sj.ki.5000035. PMID 16395272.
- ↑ Levine E, Hartman DS, Meilstrup JW, Van Slyke MA, Edgar KA, Barth JC (August 1997). "Current concepts and controversies in imaging of renal cystic diseases". Urol. Clin. North Am. 24 (3): 523–43. PMID 9275977.
- ↑ Umeoka S, Koyama T, Miki Y, Akai M, Tsutsui K, Togashi K (2008). "Pictorial review of tuberous sclerosis in various organs". Radiographics. 28 (7): e32. doi:10.1148/rg.e32. PMID 18772274.
- ↑ Manoukian SB, Kowal DJ (May 2015). "Comprehensive imaging manifestations of tuberous sclerosis". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 204 (5): 933–43. doi:10.2214/AJR.13.12235. PMID 25905927.
- ↑ Maher ER, Yates JR, Harries R, Benjamin C, Harris R, Moore AT, Ferguson-Smith MA (November 1990). "Clinical features and natural history of von Hippel-Lindau disease". Q. J. Med. 77 (283): 1151–63. PMID 2274658.
- ↑ Lonser RR, Glenn GM, Walther M, Chew EY, Libutti SK, Linehan WM, Oldfield EH (June 2003). "von Hippel-Lindau disease". Lancet. 361 (9374): 2059–67. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13643-4. PMID 12814730.
- ↑ Chapman AB, Devuyst O, Eckardt KU, Gansevoort RT, Harris T, Horie S, Kasiske BL, Odland D, Pei Y, Perrone RD, Pirson Y, Schrier RW, Torra R, Torres VE, Watnick T, Wheeler DC (July 2015). "Autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD): executive summary from a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Controversies Conference". Kidney Int. 88 (1): 17–27. doi:10.1038/ki.2015.59. PMC 4913350. PMID 25786098.
- ↑ Pei Y, Obaji J, Dupuis A, Paterson AD, Magistroni R, Dicks E, Parfrey P, Cramer B, Coto E, Torra R, San Millan JL, Gibson R, Breuning M, Peters D, Ravine D (January 2009). "Unified criteria for ultrasonographic diagnosis of ADPKD". J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 20 (1): 205–12. doi:10.1681/ASN.2008050507. PMC 2615723. PMID 18945943.
- ↑ Stavrou C, Koptides M, Tombazos C, Psara E, Patsias C, Zouvani I, Kyriacou K, Hildebrandt F, Christofides T, Pierides A, Deltas CC (October 2002). "Autosomal-dominant medullary cystic kidney disease type 1: clinical and molecular findings in six large Cypriot families". Kidney Int. 62 (4): 1385–94. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1755.2002.kid581.x. PMID 12234310.
- ↑ Bleyer AJ, Kmoch S, Antignac C, Robins V, Kidd K, Kelsoe JR, Hladik G, Klemmer P, Knohl SJ, Scheinman SJ, Vo N, Santi A, Harris A, Canaday O, Weller N, Hulick PJ, Vogel K, Rahbari-Oskoui FF, Tuazon J, Deltas C, Somers D, Megarbane A, Kimmel PL, Sperati CJ, Orr-Urtreger A, Ben-Shachar S, Waugh DA, McGinn S, Bleyer AJ, Hodanová K, Vylet'al P, Živná M, Hart TC, Hart PS (March 2014). "Variable clinical presentation of an MUC1 mutation causing medullary cystic kidney disease type 1". Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 9 (3): 527–35. doi:10.2215/CJN.06380613. PMC 3944763. PMID 24509297.
- ↑ Faguer S, Decramer S, Chassaing N, Bellanné-Chantelot C, Calvas P, Beaufils S, Bessenay L, Lengelé JP, Dahan K, Ronco P, Devuyst O, Chauveau D (October 2011). "Diagnosis, management, and prognosis of HNF1B nephropathy in adulthood". Kidney Int. 80 (7): 768–76. doi:10.1038/ki.2011.225. PMID 21775974.
- ↑ Heidet L, Decramer S, Pawtowski A, Morinière V, Bandin F, Knebelmann B, Lebre AS, Faguer S, Guigonis V, Antignac C, Salomon R (June 2010). "Spectrum of HNF1B mutations in a large cohort of patients who harbor renal diseases". Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 5 (6): 1079–90. doi:10.2215/CJN.06810909. PMC 2879303. PMID 20378641.
- ↑ Hartman DS, Sanders RC (April 1982). "Wilms' tumor versus neuroblastoma: usefulness of ultrasound in differentiation". J Ultrasound Med. 1 (3): 117–22. PMID 6152936.
- ↑ De Campo JF (1986). "Ultrasound of Wilms' tumor". Pediatr Radiol. 16 (1): 21–4. PMID 3003660.
- ↑ Cahan LD (1985). "Failure of encephalo-duro-arterio-synangiosis procedure in moyamoya disease". Pediatr Neurosci. 12 (1): 58–62. PMID 4080660.
- ↑ Jolly RD, Stellwagen E, Babul J, Vodkaĭlo LV, Titov VL, Moldomusaev DM, Maianskiĭ AN (November 1975). "Mannosidosis of Angus Cattle: a prototype control program for some genetic diseases". Adv Vet Sci Comp Med. 19 (23): 1–21. PMID 1978.
- ↑ Bravo EL (1991). "Pheochromocytoma: new concepts and future trends". Kidney Int. 40 (3): 544–56. PMID 1787652.
- ↑ Whalen RK, Althausen AF, Daniels GH (1992). "Extra-adrenal pheochromocytoma". J Urol. 147 (1): 1–10. PMID 1729490.
- ↑ Baid SK, Lai EW, Wesley RA, Ling A, Timmers HJ, Adams KT; et al. (2009). "Brief communication: radiographic contrast infusion and catecholamine release in patients with pheochromocytoma". Ann Intern Med. 150 (1): 27–32. PMC 3490128. PMID 19124817.
- ↑ Bravo EL (1991). "Pheochromocytoma: new concepts and future trends". Kidney Int. 40 (3): 544–56. PMID 1787652.
- ↑ Burkitt lymphoma. MedlinePlus. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001308.htm Accessed on September 30, 2015
- ↑ Bellan C, Lazzi S, De Falco G, Nyongo A, Giordano A, Leoncini L (2003). "Burkitt's lymphoma: new insights into molecular pathogenesis". J. Clin. Pathol. 56 (3): 188–92. PMC 1769902. PMID 12610094. Unknown parameter
|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Ko HS, Schenk JP, Tröger J, Rohrschneider WK (2007). "Current radiological management of intussusception in children". Eur Radiol. 17 (9): 2411–21. doi:10.1007/s00330-007-0589-y. PMID 17308922.
- ↑ Boyle MJ, Arkell LJ, Williams JT (1993). "Ultrasonic diagnosis of adult intussusception". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 88 (4): 617–8. PMID 8470658.
- ↑ Neuroblastoma. Radiopaedia (2015) http://radiopaedia.org/articles/neuroblastoma Accessed on October, 8 2015
- ↑ Colon NC, Chung DH (2011). "Neuroblastoma". Adv Pediatr. 58 (1): 297–311. doi:10.1016/j.yapd.2011.03.011. PMC 3668791. PMID 21736987.
- ↑ Neuroblastoma. Radiopaedia (2015) http://radiopaedia.org/articles/neuroblastoma Accessed on October, 8 2015
- ↑ Neuroblastoma. Libre Pathology(2015) http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Adrenal_gland#Neuroblastoma Accessed on October, 5 2015
- ↑ Mesoblastic nephroma.Dr Ayush Goel and Dr Yuranga Weerakkody et al. Radiopaedia.org 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/mesoblastic-nephroma