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| | binomial_authority = Shepard et al., 1974 | | | binomial_authority = Shepard et al., 1974 |
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| | {{Ureaplasma urealyticum}} |
| {{CMG}}{{AE}}{{FB}} | | {{CMG}}{{AE}}{{FB}} |
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| '''''Keywords''''': ''Ureaplasma parvum'', ''U.urealyticum'' biovar 1, ''U.urealyticum'' biovar 2, T-strain Mycoplasma, Ureaplasmal pneumonia
| | {{SK}} ''Ureaplasma parvum'', ''U. urealyticum'' biovar 1, ''U. urealyticum'' biovar 2, T-strain Mycoplasma |
| __NOTOC__ | | __NOTOC__ |
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| {{SI}}
| | ==[[Ureaplasma urealyticum overview|Overview]]== |
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| ==Overview== | | ==[[Ureaplasma urealyticum historical perspective|Historical Perspective]]== |
| ==Historical Perspective==
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| T-strain [[mycoplasma]] (now known as ''Ureaplasma urealyticum'') was first discovered in the human urogenital tract in 1954 by Shepard et al.<ref name="pmid15076934">{{cite journal| author=Deguchi T, Yoshida T, Miyazawa T, Yasuda M, Tamaki M, Ishiko H et al.| title=Association of Ureaplasma urealyticum (biovar 2) with nongonococcal urethritis. | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year= 2004 | volume= 31 | issue= 3 | pages= 192-5 | pmid=15076934 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15076934 }} </ref><ref name="pmid24047884">{{cite journal| author=Shimada Y, Ito S, Mizutani K, Sugawara T, Seike K, Tsuchiya T et al.| title=Bacterial loads of Ureaplasma urealyticum contribute to development of urethritis in men. | journal=Int J STD AIDS | year= 2014 | volume= 25 | issue= 4 | pages= 294-8 | pmid=24047884 | doi=10.1177/0956462413504556 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24047884 }} </ref> In 1974, this tiny (T)-strain [[mycoplasma]] was named ''Ureaplasma urealyticum''.<ref name="pmid24047884">{{cite journal| author=Shimada Y, Ito S, Mizutani K, Sugawara T, Seike K, Tsuchiya T et al.| title=Bacterial loads of Ureaplasma urealyticum contribute to development of urethritis in men. | journal=Int J STD AIDS | year= 2014 | volume= 25 | issue= 4 | pages= 294-8 | pmid=24047884 | doi=10.1177/0956462413504556 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24047884 }} </ref><ref name="pmid15076934">{{cite journal| author=Deguchi T, Yoshida T, Miyazawa T, Yasuda M, Tamaki M, Ishiko H et al.| title=Association of Ureaplasma urealyticum (biovar 2) with nongonococcal urethritis. | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year= 2004 | volume= 31 | issue= 3 | pages= 192-5 | pmid=15076934 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15076934 }} </ref> ''U. urealyticum'' was further subdivided into two biotypes; biovar 1 and biovar 2. ''Ureaplasma urealyticum'' biovar 1 was later designated as a separate specie called ''U. parvum'' following phylogenetic analysis done in 1999, but the biovar 2 strain retained its designation as ''U. urealyticum''.<ref name="pmid15076934">{{cite journal| author=Deguchi T, Yoshida T, Miyazawa T, Yasuda M, Tamaki M, Ishiko H et al.| title=Association of Ureaplasma urealyticum (biovar 2) with nongonococcal urethritis. | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year= 2004 | volume= 31 | issue= 3 | pages= 192-5 | pmid=15076934 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15076934 }} </ref> Investigations carried out in the mid 1970's by Tafari et al. described the isolation of ''Ureaplasma urealyticum'' from the lungs of stillborn infants with [[pneumonitis]], and it is one of the earliest investigations that suggested the possible pathogenic role of ''U. urealyticum'' in neonatal disease.<ref name="pmid8399903">{{cite journal| author=Waites KB, Crouse DT, Cassell GH| title=Systemic neonatal infection due to ''Ureaplasma urealyticum''. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1993 | volume= 17 Suppl 1 | issue= | pages= S131-5 | pmid=8399903 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8399903 }} </ref> Waites et al. reported the first case of suspected neonatal ureaplasmal pneumonia with [[sepsis]] and persistent [[pulmonary hypertension]] of the newborn in the 1980's.<ref name="pmid2909979">{{cite journal| author=Waites KB, Crouse DT, Philips JB, Canupp KC, Cassell GH| title=Ureaplasmal pneumonia and sepsis associated with persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. | journal=Pediatrics | year= 1989 | volume= 83 | issue= 1 | pages= 79-85 | pmid=2909979 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2909979 }} </ref> Several case reports are now available in the literature documenting the isolation of ''Ureaplasma urealyticum'' and ''Ureaplasma parvum'' in fetal lung tissue, cord blood, pulmonary secretions, pleural fluid, lung tissue, and blood stream of neonates with [[pneumonia]].<ref name="pmid8399903">{{cite journal| author=Waites KB, Crouse DT, Cassell GH| title=Systemic neonatal infection due to ''Ureaplasma urealyticum''. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1993 | volume= 17 Suppl 1 | issue= | pages= S131-5 | pmid=8399903 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8399903 }} </ref>
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| ==Pathophysiology== | | ==[[Ureaplasma urealyticum classification|Classification]]== |
| ===Pathogenesis===
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| ====The role of Ureaplasma infection in preterm delivery====
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| * Ureaplasma species are considered to be of low virulence, and 40-80% of healthy women have ureaplasma species (commonly ''U. urealyticum'' and ''U. parvum'') in their genital tract.<ref name="pmid26518581">{{cite journal| author=Resch B, Gutmann C, Reiterer F, Luxner J, Urlesberger B| title=Neonatal Ureaplasma urealyticum colonization increases pulmonary and cerebral morbidity despite treatment with macrolide antibiotics. | journal=Infection | year= 2016 | volume= 44 | issue= 3 | pages= 323-7 | pmid=26518581 | doi=10.1007/s15010-015-0858-7 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26518581 }} </ref><ref name="pmid21258263">{{cite journal| author=Okogbule-Wonodi AC, Gross GW, Sun CC, Agthe AG, Xiao L, Waites KB et al.| title=Necrotizing enterocolitis is associated with ureaplasma colonization in preterm infants. | journal=Pediatr Res | year= 2011 | volume= 69 | issue= 5 Pt 1 | pages= 442-7 | pmid=21258263 | doi=10.1203/PDR.0b013e3182111827 | pmc=3968774 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21258263 }} </ref><ref name="pmid8399903">{{cite journal| author=Waites KB, Crouse DT, Cassell GH| title=Systemic neonatal infection due to Ureaplasma urealyticum. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1993 | volume= 17 Suppl 1 | issue= | pages= S131-5 | pmid=8399903 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8399903 }} </ref><ref name="pmid18596706">{{cite journal| author=Viscardi RM, Hashmi N, Gross GW, Sun CC, Rodriguez A, Fairchild KD| title=Incidence of invasive ureaplasma in VLBW infants: relationship to severe intraventricular hemorrhage. | journal=J Perinatol | year= 2008 | volume= 28 | issue= 11 | pages= 759-65 | pmid=18596706 | doi=10.1038/jp.2008.98 | pmc=5334544 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18596706 }} </ref>
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| * Controversial evidence exists supporting the association between genital colonization with ureaplasma species and complications of pregnancy such as [[Preterm birth|preterm delivery]].<ref name="pmid18577163">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref>
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| * [[Lactobacilli]] help maintain the vaginal acidity, preventing the invasion of bacteria. However, the [[urease]] activity of ureaplasma species such as ''U. urealyticum'' increases the pH of the vagina via the hydrolysis of urea into carbon dioxide and ammonia. This increases the susceptibility to mixed infection with other [[pathogenic bacteria]].<ref name="pmid18577163">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref>
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| * These pathogens induce the secretion of pro-inflammatory [[cytokines]] such as [[IL-1]], [[TNF-α]], [[IL-6]], and [[chemokines]] such as [[IL-8]], leading to the recruitment of [[leukocytes]] and production of [[prostaglandins]]. Uterine stimulation by [[prostaglandins]] result in [[Preterm birth|preterm delivery]].<ref name="pmid18577163">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref>
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| * Ureaplasmal lipoprotein also induce [[apoptosis]], and it is possible that the apoptotic cells sustain genital tract [[inflammation]] which promote [[Preterm birth|preterm delivery]].<ref name="pmid18577163">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref>
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| * Studies have also shown a higher rate of vaginal infection with ureaplasma species in women with [[Preterm birth|preterm deliveries]] compared to those with full-term deliveries.<ref name="pmid18577163">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref>
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| ====Neonatal infection and the role of Ureaplasma species==== | | ==[[Ureaplasma urealyticum pathophysiology|Pathophysiology]]== |
| * ''Ureaplasma urealyticum'' and ''U. parvum'' are the most common organisms isolated from infected [[amniotic fluid]] and [[placenta]], suggesting the potential role of ureaplasma species in the development of disseminated neonatal infection.<ref name="pmid18166302">{{cite journal| author=Goldenberg RL, Andrews WW, Goepfert AR, Faye-Petersen O, Cliver SP, Carlo WA et al.| title=The Alabama Preterm Birth Study: umbilical cord blood Ureaplasma urealyticum and Mycoplasma hominis cultures in very preterm newborn infants. | journal=Am J Obstet Gynecol | year= 2008 | volume= 198 | issue= 1 | pages= 43.e1-5 | pmid=18166302 | doi=10.1016/j.ajog.2007.07.033 | pmc=2278008 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18166302 }} </ref><ref name="pmid21258263">{{cite journal| author=Okogbule-Wonodi AC, Gross GW, Sun CC, Agthe AG, Xiao L, Waites KB et al.| title=Necrotizing enterocolitis is associated with ureaplasma colonization in preterm infants. | journal=Pediatr Res | year= 2011 | volume= 69 | issue= 5 Pt 1 | pages= 442-7 | pmid=21258263 | doi=10.1203/PDR.0b013e3182111827 | pmc=3968774 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21258263 }} </ref><ref name="pmid8399903">{{cite journal| author=Waites KB, Crouse DT, Cassell GH| title=Systemic neonatal infection due to Ureaplasma urealyticum. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1993 | volume= 17 Suppl 1 | issue= | pages= S131-5 | pmid=8399903 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8399903 }} </ref><ref name="pmid18596706">{{cite journal| author=Viscardi RM, Hashmi N, Gross GW, Sun CC, Rodriguez A, Fairchild KD| title=Incidence of invasive ureaplasma in VLBW infants: relationship to severe intraventricular hemorrhage. | journal=J Perinatol | year= 2008 | volume= 28 | issue= 11 | pages= 759-65 | pmid=18596706 | doi=10.1038/jp.2008.98 | pmc=5334544 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18596706 }} </ref>
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| * The infection is commonly acquired via [[vertical transmission]] by three main mechanisms:<ref name="pmid8399903">{{cite journal| author=Waites KB, Crouse DT, Cassell GH| title=Systemic neonatal infection due to Ureaplasma urealyticum. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1993 | volume= 17 Suppl 1 | issue= | pages= S131-5 | pmid=8399903 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8399903 }} </ref>
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| # Maternal placental infection with umbilical vessels involvement result in the hematogenous dissemination of infection in the neonate.
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| # Passage of the organisms into the fetal lung via an infected [[amniotic fluid]]. This could result in [[pneumonitis]], [[bacteremia]], or [[meningitis]].
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| # Perinatal acquisition of infection following passage of the baby through an infected maternal birth canal.
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| * Preterm neonates are most commonly affected, and very low birth weight (VLBW) infants have been noted to have invasive ureaplasma infection.<ref name="pmid18596706">{{cite journal| author=Viscardi RM, Hashmi N, Gross GW, Sun CC, Rodriguez A, Fairchild KD| title=Incidence of invasive ureaplasma in VLBW infants: relationship to severe intraventricular hemorrhage. | journal=J Perinatol | year= 2008 | volume= 28 | issue= 11 | pages= 759-65 | pmid=18596706 | doi=10.1038/jp.2008.98 | pmc=5334544 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18596706 }} </ref> Preterm infants weighing <5.5 pounds are nearly four times more likely to develop systemic infection compared to full term infants weighing above 5.5 pounds.
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| * There may also be an association between [[necrotising enterocolitis]] and ureaplasma colonization in preterm neonates.<ref name="pmid21258263" />
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| ====Colonization with Ureaplasma species and its association with urogenital infections==== | | ==[[Ureaplasma urealyticum causes|Causes]]== |
| * There is no significant association between ureaplasma colonization of the lower genital tract and symptomatic urogenital infection in females.<ref name="pmid25717022">{{cite journal| author=Marovt M, Keše D, Kotar T, Kmet N, Miljković J, Šoba B et al.| title=Ureaplasma parvum and Ureaplasma urealyticum detected with the same frequency among women with and without symptoms of urogenital tract infection. | journal=Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis | year= 2015 | volume= 34 | issue= 6 | pages= 1237-45 | pmid=25717022 | doi=10.1007/s10096-015-2351-8 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25717022 }} </ref>
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| * The detection of ''Ureaplasma urealyticum'' and ''U. parvum'' in fluid samples obtained from the [[pouch of Douglas]] in 60% of women with lower urogenital tract Ureaplasma colonization confirms the fact that asymptomatic infection of the upper genital tract can occur in women following direct ascent of these organisms from the [[cervix]] and [[vagina]] to the sterile upper reproductive tract.<ref name="pmid24318169">{{cite journal| author=Kasprzykowska U, Elias J, Elias M, Mączyńska B, Sobieszczańska BM| title=Colonization of the lower urogenital tract with Ureaplasma parvum can cause asymptomatic infection of the upper reproductive system in women: a preliminary study. | journal=Arch Gynecol Obstet | year= 2014 | volume= 289 | issue= 5 | pages= 1129-34 | pmid=24318169 | doi=10.1007/s00404-013-3102-7 | pmc=3984420 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24318169 }} </ref>
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| * Some studies conducted in men show there is an association between ''Ureaplasma urealyticum'' and nongonococcal urethritis.<ref name="pmid11939406">{{cite journal| author=Povlsen K, Bjørnelius E, Lidbrink P, Lind I| title=Relationship of Ureaplasma urealyticum biovar 2 to nongonococcal urethritis. | journal=Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis | year= 2002 | volume= 21 | issue= 2 | pages= 97-101 | pmid=11939406 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11939406 }} </ref><ref name="pmid15076934">{{cite journal| author=Deguchi T, Yoshida T, Miyazawa T, Yasuda M, Tamaki M, Ishiko H et al.| title=Association of Ureaplasma urealyticum (biovar 2) with nongonococcal urethritis. | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year= 2004 | volume= 31 | issue= 3 | pages= 192-5 | pmid=15076934 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15076934 }} </ref><ref name="pmid15379939">{{cite journal| author=Maeda S, Deguchi T, Ishiko H, Matsumoto T, Naito S, Kumon H et al.| title=Detection of Mycoplasma genitalium, Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma parvum (biovar 1) and Ureaplasma urealyticum (biovar 2) in patients with non-gonococcal urethritis using polymerase chain reaction-microtiter plate hybridization. | journal=Int J Urol | year= 2004 | volume= 11 | issue= 9 | pages= 750-4 | pmid=15379939 | doi=10.1111/j.1442-2042.2004.00887.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15379939 }} </ref> However, the pathogenic role of ''Ureaplasma urealyticum'' in [[nongonococcal urethritis]] is still not clear.<ref name="pmid20498103">{{cite journal| author=Couldwell DL, Gidding HF, Freedman EV, McKechnie ML, Biggs K, Sintchenko V et al.| title=Ureaplasma urealyticum is significantly associated with non-gonococcal urethritis in heterosexual Sydney men. | journal=Int J STD AIDS | year= 2010 | volume= 21 | issue= 5 | pages= 337-41 | pmid=20498103 | doi=10.1258/ijsa.2009.009499 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20498103 }} </ref><ref name="pmid24047884">{{cite journal| author=Shimada Y, Ito S, Mizutani K, Sugawara T, Seike K, Tsuchiya T et al.| title=Bacterial loads of Ureaplasma urealyticum contribute to development of urethritis in men. | journal=Int J STD AIDS | year= 2014 | volume= 25 | issue= 4 | pages= 294-8 | pmid=24047884 | doi=10.1177/0956462413504556 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24047884 }} </ref>
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| * Men with higher bacterial load of ''U. urealyticum''(≥5 x 10<sup>3</sup>) in first-void urine were found to have higher [[leukocyte]] counts and symptomatic [[urethritis]], and it has been suggested that there could be a positive correlation between the bacteria load of ''U. urealyticum'' and the development of inflammatory responses to the organism.<ref name="pmid24047884">{{cite journal| author=Shimada Y, Ito S, Mizutani K, Sugawara T, Seike K, Tsuchiya T et al.| title=Bacterial loads of Ureaplasma urealyticum contribute to development of urethritis in men. | journal=Int J STD AIDS | year= 2014 | volume= 25 | issue= 4 | pages= 294-8 | pmid=24047884 | doi=10.1177/0956462413504556 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24047884 }} </ref>
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| ==Epidemiology and Demographics== | | ==[[Ureaplasma urealyticum differential diagnosis|Differentiating Ureaplasma urealyticum from other Diseases]]== |
| ===Prevalence=== | | |
| ===Age===
| | ==[[Ureaplasma urealyticum epidemiology and demographics|Epidemiology and Demographics]]== |
| ===Gender=== | | |
| ===Race===
| | ==[[Ureaplasma urealyticum risk factors|Risk Factors]]== |
| ===Geographical Distribution=== | | |
| | ==[[Ureaplasma urealyticum natural history, complications and prognosis|Natural History, Complications and Prognosis]]== |
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| ==Risk Factors==
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| ==Screening==
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| ==Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis==
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| ==Diagnosis== | | ==Diagnosis== |
| ===History and Symptoms===
| | [[Ureaplasma urealyticum history and symptoms|History and Symptoms]] | [[Ureaplasma urealyticum physical examination|Physical Examination]] | [[Ureaplasma urealyticum laboratory findings|Laboratory Findings]] | [[Ureaplasma urealyticum chest x ray|Chest X Ray]] | [[Ureaplasma urealyticum CT|CT]] | [[Ureaplasma urealyticum other diagnostic studies|Other Diagnostic Studies]] |
| ===Physical Examination===
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| ===Laboratory findings===
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| ====Microscopy====
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| ====Molecular-based test====
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| ==Treatment== | | ==Treatment== |
| ==Prevention==
| | [[Ureaplasma urealyticum medical therapy|Medical therapy]] | [[Ureaplasma urealyticum prevention|Prevention]] | |
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