Thyroid nodule surgery: Difference between revisions

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==== Pregnancy and surgical resection of tumors ====
=== Summary of Surgical Recommendations in Thyroid Nodules: ===
[[Pregnancy|Pregnant patients]] that are diagnosed with nodules as differentiated thyroid carcinoma by [[FNA]], can utilize a delayed surgery, with the surgery scheduled for after the [[delivery]]. Researches have shown that delayed surgery will not decrease their response to [[therapy]] and their survival rate.<ref name="pmid9284711">{{cite journal |vauthors=Moosa M, Mazzaferri EL |title=Outcome of differentiated thyroid cancer diagnosed in pregnant women |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=82 |issue=9 |pages=2862–6 |year=1997 |pmid=9284711 |doi=10.1210/jcem.82.9.4247 |url=}}</ref>
The best surgical options regarding thyroid nodules diagnosis are summarized in the table below:<ref name="pmid11038196">{{cite journal |vauthors=Duren M, Yavuz N, Bukey Y, Ozyegin MA, Gundogdu S, Açbay O, Hatemi H, Uslu I, Onsel C, Aksoy F, Oz F, Unal G, Duren E |title=Impact of initial surgical treatment on survival of patients with differentiated thyroid cancer: experience of an endocrine surgery center in an iodine-deficient region |journal=World J Surg |volume=24 |issue=11 |pages=1290–4 |year=2000 |pmid=11038196 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12016468">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hay ID, Thompson GB, Grant CS, Bergstralh EJ, Dvorak CE, Gorman CA, Maurer MS, McIver B, Mullan BP, Oberg AL, Powell CC, van Heerden JA, Goellner JR |title=Papillary thyroid carcinoma managed at the Mayo Clinic during six decades (1940-1999): temporal trends in initial therapy and long-term outcome in 2444 consecutively treated patients |journal=World J Surg |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=879–85 |year=2002 |pmid=12016468 |doi=10.1007/s00268-002-6612-1 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9499265">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lin JD, Chao TC, Huang MJ, Weng HF, Tzen KY |title=Use of radioactive iodine for thyroid remnant ablation in well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma to replace thyroid reoperation |journal=Am. J. Clin. Oncol. |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=77–81 |year=1998 |pmid=9499265 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid14583762">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rubino C, de Vathaire F, Dottorini ME, Hall P, Schvartz C, Couette JE, Dondon MG, Abbas MT, Langlois C, Schlumberger M |title=Second primary malignancies in thyroid cancer patients |journal=Br. J. Cancer |volume=89 |issue=9 |pages=1638–44 |year=2003 |pmid=14583762 |pmc=2394426 |doi=10.1038/sj.bjc.6601319 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7483170">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mazzaferri EL, Jhiang SM |title=Differentiated thyroid cancer long-term impact of initial therapy |journal=Trans. Am. Clin. Climatol. Assoc. |volume=106 |issue= |pages=151–68; discussion 168–70 |year=1995 |pmid=7483170 |pmc=2376543 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2380337">{{cite journal |vauthors=DeGroot LJ, Kaplan EL, McCormick M, Straus FH |title=Natural history, treatment, and course of papillary thyroid carcinoma |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=414–24 |year=1990 |pmid=2380337 |doi=10.1210/jcem-71-2-414 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid1517360">{{cite journal |vauthors=Samaan NA, Schultz PN, Hickey RC, Goepfert H, Haynie TP, Johnston DA, Ordonez NG |title=The results of various modalities of treatment of well differentiated thyroid carcinomas: a retrospective review of 1599 patients |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=714–20 |year=1992 |pmid=1517360 |doi=10.1210/jcem.75.3.1517360 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16684830">{{cite journal |vauthors=Durante C, Haddy N, Baudin E, Leboulleux S, Hartl D, Travagli JP, Caillou B, Ricard M, Lumbroso JD, De Vathaire F, Schlumberger M |title=Long-term outcome of 444 patients with distant metastases from papillary and follicular thyroid carcinoma: benefits and limits of radioiodine therapy |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=91 |issue=8 |pages=2892–9 |year=2006 |pmid=16684830 |doi=10.1210/jc.2005-2838 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18403624">{{cite journal |vauthors=Moon WJ, Jung SL, Lee JH, Na DG, Baek JH, Lee YH, Kim J, Kim HS, Byun JS, Lee DH |title=Benign and malignant thyroid nodules: US differentiation--multicenter retrospective study |journal=Radiology |volume=247 |issue=3 |pages=762–70 |year=2008 |pmid=18403624 |doi=10.1148/radiol.2473070944 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15200043">{{cite journal |vauthors=Marchesi M, Biffoni M, Biancari F, Berni A, Campana FP |title=Predictors of outcome for patients with differentiated and aggressive thyroid carcinoma |journal=Eur J Surg Suppl |volume= |issue=588 |pages=46–50 |year=2003 |pmid=15200043 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15283286">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ge JH, Zhao RL, Hu JL, Zhou WA |title=[Surgical treatment of advanced thyroid carcinoma with aero-digestive invasion] |language=Chinese |journal=Zhonghua Er Bi Yan Hou Ke Za Zhi |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=237–40 |year=2004 |pmid=15283286 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
 
Exception should be made in these cases, which the surgery should be done during the [[pregnancy]]:
* A nodule with [[cytology]] indicating [[papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC)]], discovered early in [[pregnancy]] that grows during [[pregnancy]] by 24 weeks gestation
* Patients with more advanced disease
 
==== Table ====
summary recommendation:
 
For patients with thyroid cancer >1 cm, the initial surgical procedure should be a near-total or total thyroidectomy unless there are contraindications to this surgery. Thyroid lobectomy alone may be sufficient treatment for small (<1 cm), low-risk, unifocal, intrathyroidal papillary carcinomas in the absence of prior head and neck irradiation or radiologically or clinically involved cervical nodal metastases


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
!
! colspan="2" |Surgical procedure
!
!Comment
!
|-
!
|
|
* Surgical options to address the primary tumor should be limited to
<ref name="pmid11038196">{{cite journal |vauthors=Duren M, Yavuz N, Bukey Y, Ozyegin MA, Gundogdu S, Açbay O, Hatemi H, Uslu I, Onsel C, Aksoy F, Oz F, Unal G, Duren E |title=Impact of initial surgical treatment on survival of patients with differentiated thyroid cancer: experience of an endocrine surgery center in an iodine-deficient region |journal=World J Surg |volume=24 |issue=11 |pages=1290–4 |year=2000 |pmid=11038196 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Nondiagnostic biopsy, a biopsy suspicious for [[Papillary thyroid cancer|papillary cancer]] or suggestive of [[Follicular thyroid cancer|follicular neoplasm]]
![[Lobectomy|'''Thyroid lobectomy''']]
|[[Lobectomy|Thyroid lobectomy]]
! rowspan="2" |'''Nondiagnostic biopsy, a biopsy suspicious for [[Papillary thyroid cancer|papillary cancer]] or suggestive of [[Follicular thyroid cancer|follicular neoplasm]]'''
|
|
* For patients with an isolated indeterminate solitary nodule who prefer a more limited surgical procedure
* For patients with an isolated indeterminate solitary nodule who prefer a more limited surgical procedure
* Recommended as initial surgical approach
* Recommended as initial surgical approach
|-
|-
|[[Thyroidectomy|Total thyroidectomy]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Thyroidectomy|'''Total thyroidectomy''']]
|Indicated in :
|Indicated in :
* Patients with indeterminate nodules who have large tumors (>4 cm),
* Patients with indeterminate nodules who have large tumors (>4 cm),
Line 153: Line 137:
* Patients who prefer to undergo bilateral [[thyroidectomy]] to avoid the possibility of requiring a future surgery on the contralateral lobe
* Patients who prefer to undergo bilateral [[thyroidectomy]] to avoid the possibility of requiring a future surgery on the contralateral lobe
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Surgery for a biopsy diagnostic for [[malignancy]]
!'''Surgery for a biopsy diagnostic for [[malignancy]]'''
|Near-total or total [[thyroidectomy]] if:
|Near-total or total [[thyroidectomy]] if:
* The primary thyroid carcinoma is >1 cm (156)
* The primary thyroid carcinoma is >1 cm (156)
Line 160: Line 144:
* The patient has first-degree family history of differentiated thyroid carcinoma
* The patient has first-degree family history of differentiated thyroid carcinoma
* Older age (>45 years) may also be a criterion for recommending near-total or total [[thyroidectomy]] even with tumors <1–1.5 cm, because of higher recurrence rates in this age group
* Older age (>45 years) may also be a criterion for recommending near-total or total [[thyroidectomy]] even with tumors <1–1.5 cm, because of higher recurrence rates in this age group
<ref name="pmid12016468">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hay ID, Thompson GB, Grant CS, Bergstralh EJ, Dvorak CE, Gorman CA, Maurer MS, McIver B, Mullan BP, Oberg AL, Powell CC, van Heerden JA, Goellner JR |title=Papillary thyroid carcinoma managed at the Mayo Clinic during six decades (1940-1999): temporal trends in initial therapy and long-term outcome in 2444 consecutively treated patients |journal=World J Surg |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=879–85 |year=2002 |pmid=12016468 |doi=10.1007/s00268-002-6612-1 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9499265">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lin JD, Chao TC, Huang MJ, Weng HF, Tzen KY |title=Use of radioactive iodine for thyroid remnant ablation in well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma to replace thyroid reoperation |journal=Am. J. Clin. Oncol. |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=77–81 |year=1998 |pmid=9499265 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid14583762">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rubino C, de Vathaire F, Dottorini ME, Hall P, Schvartz C, Couette JE, Dondon MG, Abbas MT, Langlois C, Schlumberger M |title=Second primary malignancies in thyroid cancer patients |journal=Br. J. Cancer |volume=89 |issue=9 |pages=1638–44 |year=2003 |pmid=14583762 |pmc=2394426 |doi=10.1038/sj.bjc.6601319 |url=}}</ref>
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Central-compartment (level VI) neck dissection
! colspan="2" |'''Central-compartment (level VI) neck dissection'''
|Therapeutic central-compartment (level VI) neck dissection:
|Therapeutic central-compartment (level VI) neck dissection:
* For patients with clinically involved central or lateral neck lymph nodes should accompany total thyroidectomy to provide clearance of disease from the central neck.
* For patients with clinically involved central or lateral neck lymph nodes should accompany total thyroidectomy to provide clearance of disease from the central neck.
Prophylactic central-compartment neck dissection (ipsilateral or bilateral):
Prophylactic central-compartment neck [[dissection]] (ipsilateral or bilateral):
* Consider in patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma with clinically uninvolved central neck lymph nodes, especially for advanced primary tumors (T3 or T4)
* Consider in patients with [[Papillary thyroid cancer|papillary thyroid carcinoma]] with clinically uninvolved central neck lymph nodes, especially for advanced primary tumors (T3 or T4)
Near-total or total thyroidectomy without prophylactic central neck dissection:
Near-total or total [[thyroidectomy]] without prophylactic central neck dissection:
* Consider in small (T1 or T2), noninvasive, clinically node-negative PTCs and most follicular cancer
* Consider in small (T1 or T2), noninvasive, clinically node-negative [[Papillary thyroid cancer|papillary thyroid cancers]] and most [[Follicular cancer of the thyroid|follicular cancer]]
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Lateral neck compartmental lymph node dissection  
! colspan="2" |'''Lateral neck compartmental lymph node dissection'''
|
|
* For patients with biopsy proven metastatic lateral cervical lymphadenopathy
* For patients with biopsy proven [[metastatic]] lateral cervical [[lymphadenopathy]]
|-
! colspan="2" |'''Tumors invade the upper aerodigestive tract'''
|Techniques ranging from shaving tumor off the [[trachea]] or [[esophagus]] for superficial invasion, to more aggressive techniques when the trachea is more deeply invaded (e.g., direct intraluminal invasion) including:
* [[Trachea|Tracheal]] resection and [[anastomosis]]
* Laryngopharyngoesophagectomy
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Tumors invade the upper aerodigestive tract
! colspan="2" |Comprehensive compartmental lateral and/or central neck dissection
|
|
* Techniques ranging from shaving tumor off the trachea or esophagus for superficial invasion, to more aggressive techniques when the trachea is more deeply invaded (e.g., direct intraluminal invasion) including:
* Should be performed for patients with persistent or recurrent disease confined to the neck
** Tracheal resection and anastomosis
* Sparing uninvolved vital structures
** Laryngopharyngoesophagectomy
|}
|}
Increased extent of primary surgery may improve survival for high-risk patients and low-risk patients


<ref name="pmid7483170">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mazzaferri EL, Jhiang SM |title=Differentiated thyroid cancer long-term impact of initial therapy |journal=Trans. Am. Clin. Climatol. Assoc. |volume=106 |issue= |pages=151–68; discussion 168–70 |year=1995 |pmid=7483170 |pmc=2376543 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2380337">{{cite journal |vauthors=DeGroot LJ, Kaplan EL, McCormick M, Straus FH |title=Natural history, treatment, and course of papillary thyroid carcinoma |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=414–24 |year=1990 |pmid=2380337 |doi=10.1210/jcem-71-2-414 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid1517360">{{cite journal |vauthors=Samaan NA, Schultz PN, Hickey RC, Goepfert H, Haynie TP, Johnston DA, Ordonez NG |title=The results of various modalities of treatment of well differentiated thyroid carcinomas: a retrospective review of 1599 patients |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=75 |issue=3 |pages=714–20 |year=1992 |pmid=1517360 |doi=10.1210/jcem.75.3.1517360 |url=}}</ref>
==== Pregnancy and surgical resection of tumors<ref name="pmid9284711">{{cite journal |vauthors=Moosa M, Mazzaferri EL |title=Outcome of differentiated thyroid cancer diagnosed in pregnant women |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=82 |issue=9 |pages=2862–6 |year=1997 |pmid=9284711 |doi=10.1210/jcem.82.9.4247 |url=}}</ref> ====
[[Pregnancy|Pregnant patients]] that are diagnosed with nodules as differentiated thyroid carcinoma by [[FNA]], can utilize a delayed surgery, with the surgery scheduled for after the [[delivery]]. Researches have shown that delayed surgery will not decrease their response to [[therapy]] and their survival rate.


Therapeutic comprehensive compartmental lateral and=or central neck dissection, sparing uninvolved vital structures, should be performed for patients with persistent or recurrent disease confined to the neck.
Exception should be made in these cases, which the surgery should be done during the [[pregnancy]]:
 
* A nodule with [[cytology]] indicating [[papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC)]], discovered early in [[pregnancy]] that grows during [[pregnancy]] by 24 weeks gestation
Limited compartmental lateral and=or central compartmental neck dissection may be a reasonable alternative to more extensive comprehensive dissection for patients with recurrent disease within compartments having undergone prior comprehensive dissection and=or external beam radiotherapy
* Patients with more advanced disease
<ref name="pmid16684830">{{cite journal |vauthors=Durante C, Haddy N, Baudin E, Leboulleux S, Hartl D, Travagli JP, Caillou B, Ricard M, Lumbroso JD, De Vathaire F, Schlumberger M |title=Long-term outcome of 444 patients with distant metastases from papillary and follicular thyroid carcinoma: benefits and limits of radioiodine therapy |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=91 |issue=8 |pages=2892–9 |year=2006 |pmid=16684830 |doi=10.1210/jc.2005-2838 |url=}}</ref>
<ref name="pmid18403624">{{cite journal |vauthors=Moon WJ, Jung SL, Lee JH, Na DG, Baek JH, Lee YH, Kim J, Kim HS, Byun JS, Lee DH |title=Benign and malignant thyroid nodules: US differentiation--multicenter retrospective study |journal=Radiology |volume=247 |issue=3 |pages=762–70 |year=2008 |pmid=18403624 |doi=10.1148/radiol.2473070944 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15200043">{{cite journal |vauthors=Marchesi M, Biffoni M, Biancari F, Berni A, Campana FP |title=Predictors of outcome for patients with differentiated and aggressive thyroid carcinoma |journal=Eur J Surg Suppl |volume= |issue=588 |pages=46–50 |year=2003 |pmid=15200043 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
 
For tumors that invade the upper aerodigestive tract, surgery combined with additional therapy such as 131I and=or external beam radiation is generally advised
 
techniques ranging from shaving tumor off the trachea or esophagus for superficial invasion, to more aggressive techniques when the trachea is more deeply invaded (e.g., direct intraluminal invasion) including tracheal resection and anastomosis(in table too)
<ref name="pmid15283286">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ge JH, Zhao RL, Hu JL, Zhou WA |title=[Surgical treatment of advanced thyroid carcinoma with aero-digestive invasion] |language=Chinese |journal=Zhonghua Er Bi Yan Hou Ke Za Zhi |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=237–40 |year=2004 |pmid=15283286 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 17:06, 29 October 2017


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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]

Overview

Surgery

Not all thyroid nodules require a surgical intervention, in fact surgical intervention goals for a thyroid nodule include:

Diagnostic and curative surgical interventions

Indications:

Surgical procedure based on tumor status

Tumor criteria Tumor siza Surgical procedure Note
Tumor without extrathyroidal extension and no lymph nodes <1 cm thyroid lobectomy unilateral intrathyroidal differentiated thyroid cancer <1 cm
Total thyroidectomy
Tumor without extra thyroidal extension and no lymph node 1 to 4 cm Thyroid lobectomy Based on:
  • Patient preference
  • Evidence of metastasis on imaging
Total thyroidectomy
Tumor, extrathyroidal extension, or metastases ≥4 cm Total thyroidectomy
Tumor in a patient with a history of childhood head and neck radiation Any size Total thyroidectomy
Multifocal papillary microcarcinoma (fewer than five foci) Unilateral lobectomy and isthmusectomy
Multifocal papillary microcarcinoma (more than five foci) Total thyroidectomy
Indeterminate or suspicious thyroid nodules unilateral lobectomy and

isthmusectomy

Decision should be made based on the imaging suspicious

to whether perform a total thyroidectomy or a unilateral lobectomy

Total thyroidectomy
Indeterminate thyroid nodules and DTC Total thyroidectomy

Thyroid surgery definition terms:

Term Definition

Hemithyroidectomy

Unilateral lobectomy, removing only half of the thyroid
Isthmusectomy Excising only the thyroid isthmus
Near-total thyroidectomy Removal of all grossly visible thyroid tissue, leaving only a small amount [<1 g] of tissue adjacent to the recurrent laryngeal nerve near the ligament of Berry
Total thyroidectomy Removal of all grossly visible thyroid tissue
Subtotal thyroidectomy Leaving >1 g of tissue with the posterior capsule on the uninvolved side, is an inappropriate operation for thyroid cancer

Summary of Surgical Recommendations in Thyroid Nodules:

The best surgical options regarding thyroid nodules diagnosis are summarized in the table below:[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]

Surgical procedure Comment
Thyroid lobectomy Nondiagnostic biopsy, a biopsy suspicious for papillary cancer or suggestive of follicular neoplasm
  • For patients with an isolated indeterminate solitary nodule who prefer a more limited surgical procedure
  • Recommended as initial surgical approach
Total thyroidectomy Indicated in :
  • Patients with indeterminate nodules who have large tumors (>4 cm),
  • Patients with marked atypia is seen on biopsy
  • Patients with a biopsy reading ‘‘suspicious for papillary carcinoma’’
  • In patients with a family history of thyroid carcinoma
  • In patients with a history of radiation exposure
  • Patients with indeterminate nodules who had bilateral nodular disease
  • Patients who prefer to undergo bilateral thyroidectomy to avoid the possibility of requiring a future surgery on the contralateral lobe
Surgery for a biopsy diagnostic for malignancy Near-total or total thyroidectomy if:
  • The primary thyroid carcinoma is >1 cm (156)
  • There are contralateral thyroid nodules present or regional or distant metastases are present
  • The patient has a personal history of radiation therapy to the head and neck
  • The patient has first-degree family history of differentiated thyroid carcinoma
  • Older age (>45 years) may also be a criterion for recommending near-total or total thyroidectomy even with tumors <1–1.5 cm, because of higher recurrence rates in this age group
Central-compartment (level VI) neck dissection Therapeutic central-compartment (level VI) neck dissection:
  • For patients with clinically involved central or lateral neck lymph nodes should accompany total thyroidectomy to provide clearance of disease from the central neck.

Prophylactic central-compartment neck dissection (ipsilateral or bilateral):

  • Consider in patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma with clinically uninvolved central neck lymph nodes, especially for advanced primary tumors (T3 or T4)

Near-total or total thyroidectomy without prophylactic central neck dissection:

Lateral neck compartmental lymph node dissection
Tumors invade the upper aerodigestive tract Techniques ranging from shaving tumor off the trachea or esophagus for superficial invasion, to more aggressive techniques when the trachea is more deeply invaded (e.g., direct intraluminal invasion) including:
Comprehensive compartmental lateral and/or central neck dissection
  • Should be performed for patients with persistent or recurrent disease confined to the neck
  • Sparing uninvolved vital structures

Pregnancy and surgical resection of tumors[12]

Pregnant patients that are diagnosed with nodules as differentiated thyroid carcinoma by FNA, can utilize a delayed surgery, with the surgery scheduled for after the delivery. Researches have shown that delayed surgery will not decrease their response to therapy and their survival rate.

Exception should be made in these cases, which the surgery should be done during the pregnancy:

References

  1. ↑ Duren M, Yavuz N, Bukey Y, Ozyegin MA, Gundogdu S, Açbay O, Hatemi H, Uslu I, Onsel C, Aksoy F, Oz F, Unal G, Duren E (2000). "Impact of initial surgical treatment on survival of patients with differentiated thyroid cancer: experience of an endocrine surgery center in an iodine-deficient region". World J Surg. 24 (11): 1290–4. PMID 11038196.
  2. ↑ Hay ID, Thompson GB, Grant CS, Bergstralh EJ, Dvorak CE, Gorman CA, Maurer MS, McIver B, Mullan BP, Oberg AL, Powell CC, van Heerden JA, Goellner JR (2002). "Papillary thyroid carcinoma managed at the Mayo Clinic during six decades (1940-1999): temporal trends in initial therapy and long-term outcome in 2444 consecutively treated patients". World J Surg. 26 (8): 879–85. doi:10.1007/s00268-002-6612-1. PMID 12016468.
  3. ↑ Lin JD, Chao TC, Huang MJ, Weng HF, Tzen KY (1998). "Use of radioactive iodine for thyroid remnant ablation in well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma to replace thyroid reoperation". Am. J. Clin. Oncol. 21 (1): 77–81. PMID 9499265.
  4. ↑ Rubino C, de Vathaire F, Dottorini ME, Hall P, Schvartz C, Couette JE, Dondon MG, Abbas MT, Langlois C, Schlumberger M (2003). "Second primary malignancies in thyroid cancer patients". Br. J. Cancer. 89 (9): 1638–44. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6601319. PMC 2394426. PMID 14583762.
  5. ↑ Mazzaferri EL, Jhiang SM (1995). "Differentiated thyroid cancer long-term impact of initial therapy". Trans. Am. Clin. Climatol. Assoc. 106: 151–68, discussion 168–70. PMC 2376543. PMID 7483170.
  6. ↑ DeGroot LJ, Kaplan EL, McCormick M, Straus FH (1990). "Natural history, treatment, and course of papillary thyroid carcinoma". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 71 (2): 414–24. doi:10.1210/jcem-71-2-414. PMID 2380337.
  7. ↑ Samaan NA, Schultz PN, Hickey RC, Goepfert H, Haynie TP, Johnston DA, Ordonez NG (1992). "The results of various modalities of treatment of well differentiated thyroid carcinomas: a retrospective review of 1599 patients". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 75 (3): 714–20. doi:10.1210/jcem.75.3.1517360. PMID 1517360.
  8. ↑ Durante C, Haddy N, Baudin E, Leboulleux S, Hartl D, Travagli JP, Caillou B, Ricard M, Lumbroso JD, De Vathaire F, Schlumberger M (2006). "Long-term outcome of 444 patients with distant metastases from papillary and follicular thyroid carcinoma: benefits and limits of radioiodine therapy". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 91 (8): 2892–9. doi:10.1210/jc.2005-2838. PMID 16684830.
  9. ↑ Moon WJ, Jung SL, Lee JH, Na DG, Baek JH, Lee YH, Kim J, Kim HS, Byun JS, Lee DH (2008). "Benign and malignant thyroid nodules: US differentiation--multicenter retrospective study". Radiology. 247 (3): 762–70. doi:10.1148/radiol.2473070944. PMID 18403624.
  10. ↑ Marchesi M, Biffoni M, Biancari F, Berni A, Campana FP (2003). "Predictors of outcome for patients with differentiated and aggressive thyroid carcinoma". Eur J Surg Suppl (588): 46–50. PMID 15200043.
  11. ↑ Ge JH, Zhao RL, Hu JL, Zhou WA (2004). "[Surgical treatment of advanced thyroid carcinoma with aero-digestive invasion]". Zhonghua Er Bi Yan Hou Ke Za Zhi (in Chinese). 39 (4): 237–40. PMID 15283286.
  12. ↑ Moosa M, Mazzaferri EL (1997). "Outcome of differentiated thyroid cancer diagnosed in pregnant women". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 82 (9): 2862–6. doi:10.1210/jcem.82.9.4247. PMID 9284711.

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