Spontaneous coronary artery dissection medical therapy: Difference between revisions
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__NOTOC__ | __NOTOC__ | ||
{{Spontaneous coronary artery dissection}} | {{Spontaneous coronary artery dissection}} | ||
{{CMG}}; {{AE}}{{NRM}} {{AKK}} | {{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{NRM}} {{AKK}}{{Sara.Zand}} | ||
{{SK}} SCAD | {{SK}} SCAD | ||
==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
There are no specific guidelines regarding the optimal management of spontaneous coronary artery dissection. Based on the clinical and angiographic scenario, treatment options include conservative medical regimens similar to that for [[acute coronary syndrome]], [[percutaneous coronary intervention]], and/or [[coronary artery bypass surgery]]. | There are no specific guidelines regarding the optimal management of [[spontaneous coronary artery dissection]]. Based on the [[clinical]] and [[angiographic]] scenario, treatment options include [[conservative medical regimens]] similar to that for [[acute coronary syndrome]], [[percutaneous coronary intervention]], and/or [[coronary artery bypass surgery]]. In the majority of cases, [[SCAD]] may be managed successfully with [[medical treatment]] alone in the absence of ongoing [[myocardial ischemia]] or [[hemodynamic instability]]. | ||
Initial [[conservative]] management typically includes [[antithrombotic therapy]] with [[heparin]], [[aspirin]], [[clopidogrel]] and [[glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors]], and [[antiischemic]] therapy with [[beta blockers]] and [[nitrate]]s. However, the use of [[antithrombotic]] therapy may increase the risk of [[bleeding]] in the [[false lumen]] causing an expansion of the [[intramural hematoma]], resulting in a decreased [[flow]] through the [[true lumen]].[[Fibrinolytic]]s should be avoided. [[Calcium channel blocker]]s may offer relief in [[coronary artery spasm]]. | |||
==Medical Therapy== | ==Medical Therapy== | ||
In the majority of cases, SCAD may be managed successfully with medical treatment alone in the absence of ongoing [[myocardial ischemia]] or [[hemodynamic instability]].<ref name="pmid25294399">{{cite journal| author=Saw J, Aymong E, Sedlak T, Buller CE, Starovoytov A, Ricci D et al.| title=Spontaneous coronary artery dissection: association with predisposing arteriopathies and precipitating stressors and cardiovascular outcomes. | journal=Circ Cardiovasc Interv | year= 2014 | volume= 7 | issue= 5 | pages= 645-55 | pmid=25294399 | doi=10.1161/CIRCINTERVENTIONS.114.001760 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25294399 }} </ref><ref name="pmid22800851">{{cite journal| author=Tweet MS, Hayes SN, Pitta SR, Simari RD, Lerman A, Lennon RJ et al.| title=Clinical features, management, and prognosis of spontaneous coronary artery dissection. | journal=Circulation | year= 2012 | volume= 126 | issue= 5 | pages= 579-88 | pmid=22800851 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.105718 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22800851 }} </ref> | *In the majority of cases, [[SCAD]] may be managed successfully with [[medical treatment]] alone in the absence of ongoing [[myocardial ischemia]] or [[hemodynamic instability]].<ref name="pmid25294399">{{cite journal| author=Saw J, Aymong E, Sedlak T, Buller CE, Starovoytov A, Ricci D et al.| title=Spontaneous coronary artery dissection: association with predisposing arteriopathies and precipitating stressors and cardiovascular outcomes. | journal=Circ Cardiovasc Interv | year= 2014 | volume= 7 | issue= 5 | pages= 645-55 | pmid=25294399 | doi=10.1161/CIRCINTERVENTIONS.114.001760 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25294399 }} </ref><ref name="pmid22800851">{{cite journal| author=Tweet MS, Hayes SN, Pitta SR, Simari RD, Lerman A, Lennon RJ et al.| title=Clinical features, management, and prognosis of spontaneous coronary artery dissection. | journal=Circulation | year= 2012 | volume= 126 | issue= 5 | pages= 579-88 | pmid=22800851 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.105718 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22800851 }} </ref><ref name="HayesKim2018">{{cite journal|last1=Hayes|first1=Sharonne N.|last2=Kim|first2=Esther S.H.|last3=Saw|first3=Jacqueline|last4=Adlam|first4=David|last5=Arslanian-Engoren|first5=Cynthia|last6=Economy|first6=Katherine E.|last7=Ganesh|first7=Santhi K.|last8=Gulati|first8=Rajiv|last9=Lindsay|first9=Mark E.|last10=Mieres|first10=Jennifer H.|last11=Naderi|first11=Sahar|last12=Shah|first12=Svati|last13=Thaler|first13=David E.|last14=Tweet|first14=Marysia S.|last15=Wood|first15=Malissa J.|title=Spontaneous Coronary Artery Dissection: Current State of the Science: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association|journal=Circulation|volume=137|issue=19|year=2018|issn=0009-7322|doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000564}}</ref> | ||
* Initial [[conservative]] management typically includes [[antithrombotic therapy]] with [[heparin]], [[aspirin]], [[clopidogrel]] and [[glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors]], and [[antiischemic]] therapy with [[beta blockers]] and [[nitrate]]s. | |||
* The use of [[antithrombotic]] therapy may increase the risk of [[bleeding]] in the [[false lumen]] causing an expansion of the [[intramural hematoma]], resulting in a decreased [[flow]] through the [[true lumen]].<ref name="Vrints-2010">{{Cite journal | last1 = Vrints | first1 = CJ. | title = Spontaneous coronary artery dissection. | journal = Heart | volume = 96 | issue = 10 | pages = 801-8 | year = 2010 | doi = 10.1136/hrt.2008.162073 | PMID = 20448134 }}</ref> | |||
* [[Fibrinolytic]]s should be avoided. | |||
* [[Calcium channel blocker]]s may offer relief in [[coronary artery spasm]]. | |||
===Beta Blockers=== | ===Beta Blockers=== | ||
* [[Beta blockers]] take the most important place in the [[medical]] management of [[SCAD]] patients by: | |||
::*Reducing [[vascular]] wall [[shear stress]] likewise in patients with [[aortic dissection]]. <ref name="pmid21810861">{{cite journal| author=Nienaber CA, Powell JT| title=Management of acute aortic syndromes. | journal=Eur Heart J | year= 2012 | volume= 33 | issue= 1 | pages= 26-35b | pmid=21810861 | doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehr186 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21810861 }} </ref> | |||
::*Reducing complications of [[myocardial infarction]]. <ref name="pmid26811316">{{cite journal| author=Mehta LS, Beckie TM, DeVon HA, Grines CL, Krumholz HM, Johnson MN et al.| title=Acute Myocardial Infarction in Women: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. | journal=Circulation | year= 2016 | volume= 133 | issue= 9 | pages= 916-47 | pmid=26811316 | doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000351 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26811316 }} </ref><ref name="SawHumphries2017">{{cite journal|last1=Saw|first1=Jacqueline|last2=Humphries|first2=Karin|last3=Aymong|first3=Eve|last4=Sedlak|first4=Tara|last5=Prakash|first5=Roshan|last6=Starovoytov|first6=Andrew|last7=Mancini|first7=G.B. John|title=Spontaneous Coronary Artery Dissection|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=70|issue=9|year=2017|pages=1148–1158|issn=07351097|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2017.06.053}}</ref> | |||
===[[Antiplatelet]] Therapy=== | |||
=== | *Although there is no evidence for using long term [[anti platelet]] therapy in this specific group of patients, it is reasonable to use [[aspirin]] for acute and long term management with considering [[acute coronary syndrome]] as an indication.<ref name="pmid11786451">{{cite journal| author=Antithrombotic Trialists' Collaboration| title=Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients. | journal=BMJ | year= 2002 | volume= 324 | issue= 7329 | pages= 71-86 | pmid=11786451 | doi= | pmc=64503 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11786451 }} [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12093204 Review in: ACP J Club. 2002 Jul-Aug;137(1):5] </ref> | ||
*It remains controversial to use [[clopidogrel]] in [[patients]] managed with [[conservative therapy]]. | |||
* It seems to be beneficial to use [[clopidogrel]] in acute management to avoid a new [[thrombus]] formation in true [[lumen]] on the basis of [[dissected]] part and to reduce the [[thrombus]] burden in the false [[lumen]]. <ref name="pmid12403896">{{cite journal| author=Choi JW, Davidson CJ| title=Spontaneous multivessel coronary artery dissection in a long-distance runner successfully treated with oral antiplatelet therapy. | journal=J Invasive Cardiol | year= 2002 | volume= 14 | issue= 11 | pages= 675-8 | pmid=12403896 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12403896 }} </ref> | |||
*The effects of [[P2Y12]] antagonists ([[ticagrelor]] and [[prasugrel]]) in management of [[SCAD]] [[patients]] is not clear. | |||
*[[Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors]] should be avoided in these [[patients]] because of high risk of [[bleeding]] and a potential risk of extending the [[dissection]]. <ref name="pmid23498840">{{cite journal| author=Saw J| title=Spontaneous coronary artery dissection. | journal=Can J Cardiol | year= 2013 | volume= 29 | issue= 9 | pages= 1027-33 | pmid=23498840 | doi=10.1016/j.cjca.2012.12.018 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23498840 }} </ref> | |||
===[[Anticoagulant]] and [[Thrombolytic]] Therapy=== | |||
It | *The role of [[anticoagulants]] in [[SCAD]] is still in question. | ||
*It is one of the standard therapy in [[acute coronary syndrome]] but it has both advantages and disadvantages in [[SCAD]] [[patients]]. | |||
*Even though [[anticoagulation]] poses a treat for extension of the [[dissection]], it seems to be beneficial for preventing from further [[thrombi]] formation and keeping the [[true lumen]] patent. | |||
*[[Thrombolytic therapy]] has been reported as harmful due to the enlargement of [[intramural haematom]] and [[dissection]]. <ref name="pmid20440039">{{cite journal| author=Shamloo BK, Chintala RS, Nasur A, Ghazvini M, Shariat P, Diggs JA et al.| title=Spontaneous coronary artery dissection: aggressive vs. conservative therapy. | journal=J Invasive Cardiol | year= 2010 | volume= 22 | issue= 5 | pages= 222-8 | pmid=20440039 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20440039 }} </ref> <ref name="pmid11170335">{{cite journal| author=Zupan I, Noc M, Trinkaus D, Popovic M| title=Double vessel extension of spontaneous left main coronary artery dissection in young women treated with thrombolytics. | journal=Catheter Cardiovasc Interv | year= 2001 | volume= 52 | issue= 2 | pages= 226-30 | pmid=11170335 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11170335 }} </ref> | |||
=== | ===[[Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitor]] or [[Angiotensin Receptor Blocker]]=== | ||
* [[Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]] and [[angiotensin receptor blockers]] are recommended for [[patients]] with [[acute myocardial infarction]] complicated with [[heart failure]], impaired [[left ventricular]] [[systolic]] functions or [[hypertension]] state. <ref name="pmid28461259">{{cite journal| author=Yancy CW, Jessup M, Bozkurt B, Butler J, Casey DE, Colvin MM et al.| title=2017 ACC/AHA/HFSA Focused Update of the 2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Heart Failure Society of America. | journal=J Card Fail | year= 2017 | volume= 23 | issue= 8 | pages= 628-651 | pmid=28461259 | doi=10.1016/j.cardfail.2017.04.014 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28461259 }} </ref> | |||
* [[ACEI]] or [[ARB]] should be avoided in [[female]] [[patients]] of [[reproductive]] age. | |||
=== | ===Statins=== | ||
*[[Statin]] therapy is not recommended routinely after [[SCAD]] except in [[patients]] with underlying [[atherosclerosis]] disease or [[diabetes mellitus]].<ref name="pmid22800851">{{cite journal| author=Tweet MS, Hayes SN, Pitta SR, Simari RD, Lerman A, Lennon RJ et al.| title=Clinical features, management, and prognosis of spontaneous coronary artery dissection. | journal=Circulation | year= 2012 | volume= 126 | issue= 5 | pages= 579-88 | pmid=22800851 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.105718 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22800851 }} </ref> | |||
===Antianginal Therapy=== | |||
*[[Antianginal]] therapies with [[nitrates]], [[calcium channel blockers]], or [[ranolazine]] may be considered for post-[[SCAD]] [[chest pain]] syndromes in patients as follows: | |||
::* Not candidates for [[revascularization]] | |||
::* Evidence of [[coronary]] [[vasospasm]] or [[coronary ]] [[microvascular]] dysfunction | |||
* Common adverse effects include symptomatic [[hypotension]] and [[headache]]. | |||
* Routine administration of [[antianginal]] therapy for either the index [[SCAD]] hospitalization or long term is not recommended.<ref name="HayesKim2018">{{cite journal|last1=Hayes|first1=Sharonne N.|last2=Kim|first2=Esther S.H.|last3=Saw|first3=Jacqueline|last4=Adlam|first4=David|last5=Arslanian-Engoren|first5=Cynthia|last6=Economy|first6=Katherine E.|last7=Ganesh|first7=Santhi K.|last8=Gulati|first8=Rajiv|last9=Lindsay|first9=Mark E.|last10=Mieres|first10=Jennifer H.|last11=Naderi|first11=Sahar|last12=Shah|first12=Svati|last13=Thaler|first13=David E.|last14=Tweet|first14=Marysia S.|last15=Wood|first15=Malissa J.|title=Spontaneous Coronary Artery Dissection: Current State of the Science: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association|journal=Circulation|year=2018|pages=CIR.0000000000000564|issn=0009-7322|doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000564}}</ref> | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
Latest revision as of 12:53, 12 March 2022
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Spontaneous Coronary Artery Dissection Microchapters |
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Differentiating Spontaneous coronary artery dissection from other Diseases |
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Diagnosis |
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Treatment |
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Case Studies |
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Type 1 Type 2A Type 2B Type 3 |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Nate Michalak, B.A. Arzu Kalayci, M.D. [2]Sara Zand, M.D.[3]
Synonyms and keywords: SCAD
Overview
There are no specific guidelines regarding the optimal management of spontaneous coronary artery dissection. Based on the clinical and angiographic scenario, treatment options include conservative medical regimens similar to that for acute coronary syndrome, percutaneous coronary intervention, and/or coronary artery bypass surgery. In the majority of cases, SCAD may be managed successfully with medical treatment alone in the absence of ongoing myocardial ischemia or hemodynamic instability. Initial conservative management typically includes antithrombotic therapy with heparin, aspirin, clopidogrel and glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors, and antiischemic therapy with beta blockers and nitrates. However, the use of antithrombotic therapy may increase the risk of bleeding in the false lumen causing an expansion of the intramural hematoma, resulting in a decreased flow through the true lumen.Fibrinolytics should be avoided. Calcium channel blockers may offer relief in coronary artery spasm.
Medical Therapy
- In the majority of cases, SCAD may be managed successfully with medical treatment alone in the absence of ongoing myocardial ischemia or hemodynamic instability.[1][2][3]
- Initial conservative management typically includes antithrombotic therapy with heparin, aspirin, clopidogrel and glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors, and antiischemic therapy with beta blockers and nitrates.
- The use of antithrombotic therapy may increase the risk of bleeding in the false lumen causing an expansion of the intramural hematoma, resulting in a decreased flow through the true lumen.[4]
- Fibrinolytics should be avoided.
- Calcium channel blockers may offer relief in coronary artery spasm.
Beta Blockers
- Beta blockers take the most important place in the medical management of SCAD patients by:
- Reducing vascular wall shear stress likewise in patients with aortic dissection. [5]
- Reducing complications of myocardial infarction. [6][7]
Antiplatelet Therapy
- Although there is no evidence for using long term anti platelet therapy in this specific group of patients, it is reasonable to use aspirin for acute and long term management with considering acute coronary syndrome as an indication.[8]
- It remains controversial to use clopidogrel in patients managed with conservative therapy.
- It seems to be beneficial to use clopidogrel in acute management to avoid a new thrombus formation in true lumen on the basis of dissected part and to reduce the thrombus burden in the false lumen. [9]
- The effects of P2Y12 antagonists (ticagrelor and prasugrel) in management of SCAD patients is not clear.
- Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors should be avoided in these patients because of high risk of bleeding and a potential risk of extending the dissection. [10]
Anticoagulant and Thrombolytic Therapy
- The role of anticoagulants in SCAD is still in question.
- It is one of the standard therapy in acute coronary syndrome but it has both advantages and disadvantages in SCAD patients.
- Even though anticoagulation poses a treat for extension of the dissection, it seems to be beneficial for preventing from further thrombi formation and keeping the true lumen patent.
- Thrombolytic therapy has been reported as harmful due to the enlargement of intramural haematom and dissection. [11] [12]
Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitor or Angiotensin Receptor Blocker
- Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers are recommended for patients with acute myocardial infarction complicated with heart failure, impaired left ventricular systolic functions or hypertension state. [13]
- ACEI or ARB should be avoided in female patients of reproductive age.
Statins
- Statin therapy is not recommended routinely after SCAD except in patients with underlying atherosclerosis disease or diabetes mellitus.[2]
Antianginal Therapy
- Antianginal therapies with nitrates, calcium channel blockers, or ranolazine may be considered for post-SCAD chest pain syndromes in patients as follows:
- Not candidates for revascularization
- Evidence of coronary vasospasm or coronary microvascular dysfunction
- Common adverse effects include symptomatic hypotension and headache.
- Routine administration of antianginal therapy for either the index SCAD hospitalization or long term is not recommended.[3]
References
- ↑ Saw J, Aymong E, Sedlak T, Buller CE, Starovoytov A, Ricci D; et al. (2014). "Spontaneous coronary artery dissection: association with predisposing arteriopathies and precipitating stressors and cardiovascular outcomes". Circ Cardiovasc Interv. 7 (5): 645–55. doi:10.1161/CIRCINTERVENTIONS.114.001760. PMID 25294399.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Tweet MS, Hayes SN, Pitta SR, Simari RD, Lerman A, Lennon RJ; et al. (2012). "Clinical features, management, and prognosis of spontaneous coronary artery dissection". Circulation. 126 (5): 579–88. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.105718. PMID 22800851.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Hayes, Sharonne N.; Kim, Esther S.H.; Saw, Jacqueline; Adlam, David; Arslanian-Engoren, Cynthia; Economy, Katherine E.; Ganesh, Santhi K.; Gulati, Rajiv; Lindsay, Mark E.; Mieres, Jennifer H.; Naderi, Sahar; Shah, Svati; Thaler, David E.; Tweet, Marysia S.; Wood, Malissa J. (2018). "Spontaneous Coronary Artery Dissection: Current State of the Science: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association". Circulation. 137 (19). doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000564. ISSN 0009-7322.
- ↑ Vrints, CJ. (2010). "Spontaneous coronary artery dissection". Heart. 96 (10): 801–8. doi:10.1136/hrt.2008.162073. PMID 20448134.
- ↑ Nienaber CA, Powell JT (2012). "Management of acute aortic syndromes". Eur Heart J. 33 (1): 26–35b. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehr186. PMID 21810861.
- ↑ Mehta LS, Beckie TM, DeVon HA, Grines CL, Krumholz HM, Johnson MN; et al. (2016). "Acute Myocardial Infarction in Women: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association". Circulation. 133 (9): 916–47. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000351. PMID 26811316.
- ↑ Saw, Jacqueline; Humphries, Karin; Aymong, Eve; Sedlak, Tara; Prakash, Roshan; Starovoytov, Andrew; Mancini, G.B. John (2017). "Spontaneous Coronary Artery Dissection". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 70 (9): 1148–1158. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2017.06.053. ISSN 0735-1097.
- ↑ Antithrombotic Trialists' Collaboration (2002). "Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients". BMJ. 324 (7329): 71–86. PMC 64503. PMID 11786451. Review in: ACP J Club. 2002 Jul-Aug;137(1):5
- ↑ Choi JW, Davidson CJ (2002). "Spontaneous multivessel coronary artery dissection in a long-distance runner successfully treated with oral antiplatelet therapy". J Invasive Cardiol. 14 (11): 675–8. PMID 12403896.
- ↑ Saw J (2013). "Spontaneous coronary artery dissection". Can J Cardiol. 29 (9): 1027–33. doi:10.1016/j.cjca.2012.12.018. PMID 23498840.
- ↑ Shamloo BK, Chintala RS, Nasur A, Ghazvini M, Shariat P, Diggs JA; et al. (2010). "Spontaneous coronary artery dissection: aggressive vs. conservative therapy". J Invasive Cardiol. 22 (5): 222–8. PMID 20440039.
- ↑ Zupan I, Noc M, Trinkaus D, Popovic M (2001). "Double vessel extension of spontaneous left main coronary artery dissection in young women treated with thrombolytics". Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 52 (2): 226–30. PMID 11170335.
- ↑ Yancy CW, Jessup M, Bozkurt B, Butler J, Casey DE, Colvin MM; et al. (2017). "2017 ACC/AHA/HFSA Focused Update of the 2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Heart Failure Society of America". J Card Fail. 23 (8): 628–651. doi:10.1016/j.cardfail.2017.04.014. PMID 28461259.