Abdominal parasitic infection

Jump to navigation Jump to search


Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Mohammed Abdelwahed M.D[2]

Abdominal parasitic infection Main page

Overview

Causes

Ascaris lumbricoides

Necator americanus

Giardia lamblia

Fasciola Hepaticum

Schistosoma

Strongyloidis Stercoralis

E. Histolytica (Amebiasis)

Taeniasis

Trichuris trichiura

Hymenolepis Nana

Overview

An intestinal parasite infection is a condition in which a parasite infects the gastro-intestinal tract of humans and other animals. Mode of transmission of infection can be due to ingestion of undercooked meat, drinking infected water, fecal-oral transmission and skin absorption. There are many types of parasites that can cause abdomial infections but the most common types are caused by Ascaris lumbricoides, Necator americanus, Fasciola, Schistosoma, Trichuris trichiura, Strongyloides stercoralis, Taenia, Hymenolepis nana, and Entamoeba histolytica. Ascaris lumbricoides is a common in Asia and during six to eight weeks after egg ingestion, symptoms of ascariasis are abdominal discomfort, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Stool microscopy is the most common diagnostic tool for evaluation of Ascaris ova and albendazole is the drug of choice for treatment. Necator americanus is common in rural areas of the US and presents with nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, and epigastric pain. Giardiasis is common in children and mountains hikers who drink water that has not been boiled. Most of the cases are asymptomatic but acute giardiasis symptoms include diarrhea, malaise, steatorrhea, abdominal cramps, bloating, nausea, and weight loss. ELISA is sensitive for detection of giardiasis and stool examination is specific. Tinidazole and nitazoxanide are the preferred drug for Giardiasis. Fasciola appears with fever, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, myalgia, cough, right upper quadrant pain, hematomas of the liver, jaundice, and hepatomegaly. Complications include focal neurologic changes, pericarditis, arrhythmia, and right-sided pleural effusion. Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging radiographic findings in fascioliasis are vmultiple small nodules, thickening of the liver capsule, subcapsular hematoma, or parenchymal calcifications or tortuous tracks due to migration of the parasite through the liver. The treatment of choice is triclabendazole. Dosing consists of 10 mg/kg orally for one or two days. Bithionol and nitazoxanide are alternative choices. Intestinal schistosomiasis is caused by infection due to S. mansoni, S. japonicum, and S. haematobium. The most common symptoms include chronic or intermittent abdominal pain, poor appetite, bleeding from colonic ulcers that may cause anemia if heavily infested. The left lobe of liver is enlarged with splenomegaly that may extend below the umbilicus. Increased portal hypertension is due to high resistance in the hepatic circulation. The predominant pathological process consists of collagen deposition in the periportal spaces causing periportal fibrosis. Identification of schistosome eggs is the gold standard for the diagnosis of schistosomiasis with low sensitivity and high specificity. Serology is used as screening mainly because of low sensitivity. Praziquantel is the drug of choice for schistosomiasis. It increases calcium ion permeability. Calcium accumulate in the cytosol leading to muscular contractions and subsequent paralysis. Hymenolepis Nana is most common in temperate zones, and is one of the most common cestodes infecting humans, especially children. Most infections are asymptomatic. The diagnosis is generally established by identifying eggs in the stool. Praziquantel is the treatment of choice for hymenolepiasis. Most infections with T. trichiura are asymptomatic. Main symptoms are loose stool which may contain mucus and blood. The diagnosis of trichuriasis is made by stool examination for eggs. Mebendazole is the drug of choice for trichuriasis.

Causes

Ascaris lumbricoides

Mode of infection

  • Ingestion of Ascaris eggs secreted in the feces of humans or pigs.
  • Ingesting uncooked pig or chicken liver with the larvae.[1]

Epidemiology and demographics

  • Approximately 800 million people are infected.[2]
  • Majority of individuals infected with ascariasis are in Asia (73 percent), Africa (12 percent), and South America (8 percent).[3]

Clinical manifestations

Complications

Laboratory findings

  • Stool microscopy is the most common diagnostic tool for evaluation of Ascaris ova.
  • Characteristic eggs may be seen on direct examination of stool.

Imaging findings

Treatment

Drug Dosage
Albendazole 400 mg orally once
Mebendazole 100 mg orally twice daily for 3 days or 500 mg orally once
Ivermectin 150-200 mcg/kg orally once
Ascaris lumbricoides adult worms, source: By SuSanA Secretariat - https://www.flickr.com/photos/gtzecosan/15701719491/in/set-72157648708895830, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=37077525
+/−, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=781546

Necator americanus

  • Approximetly 800 million people are infected with hookworms worldwide.[8]
  • The prevalence of hookworm infection in rural areas of United States in the early 20th century was high.

Acute gastrointestinal symptoms

  • Nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, epigastric pain, and increased flatulence may be observed.[9]
  • In patients with recurrent infections, gastrointestinal symptoms become less in the proceeding attacks, mild after the second, and absent after the third and fourth infection.

Chronic nutritional impairment

  • Hookworms cause blood loss during attachment to the intestinal mucosa by lacerating capillaries and ingesting extravasated blood.[10]
  • The daily losses of blood, iron, and albumin can lead to anemia and contribute to impaired nutrition, especially in patients with heavy infection.
  • Pregnant females with hookworm infection are associated with low birth weight.

Stool examination

Treatment

  • Albendazole is the first line of treatment for hookworms.[12]
  • Mebendazole is an alternative therapy; 100 mg twice daily for three days.
  • Another alternative therapy is pyrantel pamoate (11 mg/kg per day for three days, not to exceed 1 g/day).[13]
Necator Americanus, source: By Jasper Lawrence - I took the photograph using a Nikon E200 Trinocular microscope, an M99 microscope adaptor from the Martin Microscope Company (S/N3734), a D10NLC C-Mount manufactured by Diagnostic Instruments and a Sony HDV-A1U HD digital video camera., GFDL, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4335265
Hookworm life cycle , source: By The original uploader was Sonett72 at English Wikipedia - CDC - Department of Parasitic Diseaseshttp://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/HTML/ImageLibrary/Hookworm_il.htmhttp://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/images/ParasiteImages/G-L/Hookworm/Hookworm_LifeCycle.gifOriginally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here., Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1860052


Giardia lamblia

  • The prevalence of giardiasis is 20 to 40 percent in endemic areas.
  • The highest risk group for infection are children <5 years.[14]
  • Approximately, 15,223 cases were reported in the United States in 2012.[15]
  • Giardiasis is a major cause of diarrhea among mountains hikers who drink water that has not been boiled.[16]
  • Transmission of giardiasis can occur via ingestion of raw or undercooked food contaminated with cysts.[17]
  • Giardiasis can be transmitted via anal-oral sexual contact.[18]

Clinical presentation

Asymptomatic infection 

  • Most of the cases are asymptomatic.[19]

Acute giardiasis

Chronic giardiasis

Complications

Laboratory diagnosis

Antigen detection assays 

Nucleic acid amplification assays

  • Nucleic acid amplification assays (NAAT) detect Giardia in stool samples.[22]

Stool microscopy

  • Stool microscopy to detect Giardia can be specific but needs expert to examine the stool and needs intermittent excretion of Giardia cysts.

Treatment

Preferred agents
  • Tinidazole and nitazoxanide are the preferred drug for Giardiasis.[23]
  • Tinidazole has a longer half-life than nitazoxanide and may be administered as a single dose with high efficacy (>90 percent).
Drug Dose
Adults Children
Tinidazole 2 g orally, single dose Age ≥3 years: 50 mg/kg orally, single dose (maximum dose 2 g)
Nitazoxanide 500 mg orally two times per day for three days Age 1 to 3 years: 100 mg orally two times per day for 3 days

Age 4 to 11 years: 200 mg orally two times per day for 3 days Age ≥12 years: Same as adult dose

Giardia lamblia cytology, source: By Jerad M Gardner, MD - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=15125058
, source: By CDC/Alexander J. da Silva, PhD/Melanie Moser - NIH, or CDC, or CDC PHIL #3394., Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3195726

Fasciola Hepaticum

  • Fasciola infection is endemic in Central and South America, Asia (China, Vietnam, Taiwan, Korea, and Thailand), Europe (Portugal, France, Spain, and Turkey), Africa, and the Middle East.
  • Children and women are the highest risk groups. It is highly infectious and in some endemic areas to the extent of infecting 100% of the individuals.

Clinical manifestations

  • Many infections are mild. Forms of infection include two phases; the acute liver phase and chronic biliary phase.[24]

Acute phase

Chronic phase

Complications

Diagnosis

  • Diagnosis of fascioliasis should be associated with evaluation of family members.[30]

Microscopy

  • The diagnosis can be established by identifying eggs in stool, duodenal aspirates, or bile specimens.[31]
  • Eggs are not detectable in stool during the acute phase of infection.
  • Examination of multiple specimens may be needed or concentration of specimens to facilitate egg identification.[32]

Serology

Imaging

Treatment

  • The treatment of choice is triclabendazole. Dosing consists of 10 mg/kg orally for one or two days. Bithionol and nitazoxanide are alternative choices.[35]

Schistosoma

  • The prevalence of schistosomiasis is highest in sub-Saharan Africa.[36]
  • Approximately 200 million people are infected annually with 200,000 deaths per year.

Clinical presentation

Acute schistosomiasis syndrome
Chronic infection
  • Chronic infection related to schistosomiasis is most common among individuals in endemic areas.[39]

Intestinal schistosomiasis

Hepatosplenic schistosomiasis

Pulmonary complications

Genitourinary schistosomiasis
  • In early infection, eggs are excreted in the urine and patients present with microscopic or macroscopic hematuria and/or pyuria.[47]
  • Blood is usually seen at the end of voiding terminal hematuria, although in severe cases hematuria may be observed for the entire duration of voiding.
  • In early chronic infection, the eggs provoke granulomatous inflammation, ulcerations, and development of pseudopolyps in the vesical and ureteral walls, which may be observed on cystoscopy and mimic malignancy.[48]

Laboratory findings

Microscopy
  • Identification of schistosome eggs in a stool or urine sample via microscopy is the gold standard for the diagnosis of schistosomiasis with low sensitivity and high specificity.
Infection intensity
Infection Intensity Egss per gram
Light 100 eggs per gram
Moderate 100 to 400 eggs per gram
Severe >400 eggs per gram
  • The intensity of urinary schistosomiasis is classified as:
    • Light to moderate: up to 50 eggs/10 mL
    • Severe: >50 eggs/10 mL
Serology
Molecular tests
  • PCR on urine samples noted sensitivity and specificity of 94 and 100 percent, respectively.
  • S. mansoni PCR sensitivity is 100 percent and specificity is 90 percent.[51]
Biopsy
  • Histopathology of superficial rectal biopsies is more sensitive than stool microscopy and may demonstrate eggs even when multiple stool specimens are negative.[52]

Treatment

Schistosoma mansoni egg, source: By US federal government - Work of US federal government, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=218201
Couple of Schistosoma mansoni, source: CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=55038168

Strongyloidis Stercoralis

  • In tropical and subtropical regions, the prevalence of Strongyloidis Stercoralis infection may exceed 25 percent.[55]
  • The highest rates of infection in the United States are among residents of the southeastern states and among individuals who have been in endemic areas.

Gastrointestinal symptoms

The most common manifestations of the hyperinfection syndrome include:[56]

Diagnosis

Serology

Endoscopy

Treatment

  • Ivermectin is the preferred drug for treatment.
  • Administered as two single 200 mcg/kg doses of ivermectin administered on two consecutive days.[61]

Albendazole

Strongyloides Stercoralis, source: Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=219824

E. Histolytica (Amebiasis)

  • Areas with high rates of amebic infection include India, Africa, Mexico, and parts of Central and South America. The overall prevalence of amebic infection may be as high as 50 percent in some areas.[63]

Clinical presentation

  • The majority of entamoeba infections are asymptomatic; this includes 90 percent of E. histolytica infections.[64]

Diagnosis

Stool microscopy

  • The demonstration of cysts or trophozoites in the stool suggests intestinal amebiasis, but microscopy cannot differentiate between E. histolytica and E. dispar or E. moshkovskii strains. In addition, microscopy requires specialized expertise and is subject to operator error.[67]

Antigen testing

  • Stool and serum antigen detection assays that use monoclonal antibodies to bind to epitopes present on pathogenic E. histolytica strains (but not on nonpathogenic E. dispar strains) are commercially available for diagnosis of E. histolytica infection.[68]
  • Antigen detection kits using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), radioimmunoassay, or immunofluorescence have been developed.
  • Antigen detection has many advantages, including ease and rapidity of the tests, capacity to differentiate between strains, greater sensitivity than microscopy, and potential for diagnosis in early infection and in endemic areas.

Serology

  • Antibodies are detectable within five to seven days of acute infection and may persist for years.
  • Approximately 10 to 35 percent of uninfected individuals in endemic areas have antiamebic antibodies due to previous infection with E. histolytica.
  • Negative serology is helpful for exclusion of disease, but positive serology cannot distinguish between acute and previous infection.

Molecular methods

  • Techniques can detect E. histolytica in stool specimens.
  • Studies have shown that PCR is significantly more sensitive than microscopy and that it was 100 percent specific for E. histolytica.[69]
  • PCR is about 100 times more sensitive than fecal antigen tests.

Treatment

  • All E. histolytica infections should be treated, even in the absence of symptoms, given the potential risk of developing invasive disease and the risk of spread to family members.[70]
  • The goals of antibiotic therapy of intestinal amebiasis are to eliminate the invading trophozoites and to eradicate intestinal carriage of the organism.
Amebiasis life cycle , source: By CDC - https://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/amebiasis/index.html, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=41751982
Amoebic cyst, source: By CDC’s Division of Parasitic Diseases - http://dpd.cdc.gov/DPDx/HTML/ImageLibrary/Amebiasis_il.htm, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5030067

Taeniasis

Taeniasis

  • There are two main species of human Taenia; Taenia saginata (the beef tapeworm) and Taenia solium, (the pork tapeworm).[71]
  • T. saginata occurs worldwide but is most common in areas where consumption of undercooked beef is customary, such as Europe and parts of Asia.

Clinical presentation

Diagnosis

Treatment

  • Praziquantel is the treatment of choice for taeniasis.[72]
  • Dosing for taeniasis is 5 to 10 mg/kg orally (single dose), although excellent efficacy against T. saginata infections has been reported at doses as low as 2.5 mg/kg.[73]
  • Niclosamide is an acceptable alternative treatment for tapeworms if praziquantel is not available.
Taenia Saginata life cycle , source: By Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Division of Parasitic Diseases - Centers for Disease Control & Prevention, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Division of Parasitic DiseasesThe work compiled from original Life cycle of Taenia spp. - http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/html/Taeniasis.htm, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=26668532

Trichuris trichiura

 Clinical manifestations

  • Most infections with T. trichiura are asymptomatic.[74]
  • Main symptoms are loose stool which may contain mucus and blood.
  • Nocturnal stooling is common. Colitis and dysentery occur most frequently among individuals with >200 worms, and secondary anemia with pica may occur.
  • Rectal prolapse can occur in heavily infested patients.
  • Children who are heavily infected may have impaired growth and cognition.

Diagnosis

Treatment

  • Mebendazole is the drug of choice for trichuriasis: 500 mg once daily for three days or 100 mg orally twice daily for three days.[77]
  • Albendazole is second-line treatment: 400 mg orally on empty stomach once daily.[78]
Trichuris Trichiura, source: By Delorieux for Johann Gottfried Bremser - XIX tabulae : Anatomiam entozoorum illustrantes, congestae, nec non explicatione praeditae, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=11412733

Hymenolepis Nana

  • Hymenolepis Nana is a species most commonly in temperate zones, and is one of the most common cestodes infecting humans, especially children.
  • The prevalence of Hymenolepis Nana is higher in warm parts of South Europe, Russia, India, US and Latin America.[79]
  • Prevalence is 97% in Moscow children and 34% in Argentina children. It has been reported to affect 4 percent of schoolchildren in rural southeastern United States.

Clinical manifestations

Diagnosis

  • The diagnosis is generally established by identifying eggs in the stool.
  • The sensitivity of stool microscopy can be increased by using concentration techniques such as the FLOTAC method.[81]
  • Diagnosis of hymenolepiasis should prompt family screening or empiric treatment, given the potential for person-to-person spread.

Treatment

  • Praziquantel is the treatment of choice for hymenolepiasis.[72]
  • Dosing for hymenolepiasis is 25 mg/kg orally (single dose), followed by repeat dose 10 days later.[73]
Hymenolepis Nana life cycle , source: Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2936828

References

  1. ↑ Permin A, Henningsen E, Murrell KD, Roepstorff A, Nansen P (2000). "Pigs become infected after ingestion of livers and lungs from chickens infected with Ascaris of pig origin". Int J Parasitol. 30 (7): 867–8. PMID 10899534.
  2. ↑ Betson M, Nejsum P, Bendall RP, Deb RM, Stothard JR (2014). "Molecular epidemiology of ascariasis: a global perspective on the transmission dynamics of Ascaris in people and pigs". J Infect Dis. 210 (6): 932–41. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiu193. PMC 4136802. PMID 24688073.
  3. ↑ Dold C, Holland CV (2011). "Ascaris and ascariasis". Microbes Infect. 13 (7): 632–7. doi:10.1016/j.micinf.2010.09.012. PMID 20934531.
  4. ↑ Khuroo MS (1996). "Ascariasis". Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 25 (3): 553–77. PMID 8863040.
  5. ↑ Javid G, Wani NA, Gulzar GM, Khan BA, Shah AH, Shah OJ; et al. (1999). "Ascaris-induced liver abscess". World J Surg. 23 (11): 1191–4. PMID 10501884.
  6. ↑ Weller PF (1992). "Eosinophilia in travelers". Med Clin North Am. 76 (6): 1413–32. PMID 1405826.
  7. ↑ Reeder MM (1998). "The radiological and ultrasound evaluation of ascariasis of the gastrointestinal, biliary, and respiratory tracts". Semin Roentgenol. 33 (1): 57–78. PMID 9516689.
  8. ↑ Bradbury RS, Hii SF, Harrington H, Speare R, Traub R (2017). "Ancylostoma ceylanicum Hookworm in the Solomon Islands". Emerg Infect Dis. 23 (2): 252–257. doi:10.3201/eid2302.160822. PMC 5324822. PMID 28098526.
  9. ↑ Nawalinski TA, Schad GA (1974). "Arrested development in Ancylostoma duodenale: course of a self-induced infection in man". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 23 (5): 895–8. PMID 4451228.
  10. ↑ Chhabra P, Bhasin DK (2017). "Hookworm-Induced Obscure Overt Gastrointestinal Bleeding". Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 15 (11): e161–e162. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2017.02.034. PMID 28300694.
  11. ↑ McKenna ML, McAtee S, Bryan PE, Jeun R, Ward T, Kraus J; et al. (2017). "Human Intestinal Parasite Burden and Poor Sanitation in Rural Alabama". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 97 (5): 1623–1628. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.17-0396. PMID 29016326.
  12. ↑ Genta RM, Woods KL (1991). "Endoscopic diagnosis of hookworm infection". Gastrointest Endosc. 37 (4): 476–8. PMID 1916173.
  13. ↑ Serre-Delcor N, Treviño B, Monge B, Salvador F, Torrus D, Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez B; et al. (2017). "Eosinophilia prevalence and related factors in travel and immigrants of the network +REDIVI". Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 35 (10): 617–623. doi:10.1016/j.eimc.2016.02.024. PMID 27032297.
  14. ↑ Feng Y, Xiao L (2011). "Zoonotic potential and molecular epidemiology of Giardia species and giardiasis". Clin Microbiol Rev. 24 (1): 110–40. doi:10.1128/CMR.00033-10. PMC 3021202. PMID 21233509.
  15. ↑ Muhsen K, Levine MM (2012). "A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between Giardia lamblia and endemic pediatric diarrhea in developing countries". Clin Infect Dis. 55 Suppl 4: S271–93. doi:10.1093/cid/cis762. PMC 3502312. PMID 23169940.
  16. ↑ Dykes AC, Juranek DD, Lorenz RA, Sinclair S, Jakubowski W, Davies R (1980). "Municipal waterborne giardiasis: an epidemilogic investigation. Beavers implicated as a possible reservoir". Ann Intern Med. 92 (2 Pt 1): 165–70. PMID 7188724.
  17. ↑ Quick R, Paugh K, Addiss D, Kobayashi J, Baron R (1992). "Restaurant-associated outbreak of giardiasis". J Infect Dis. 166 (3): 673–6. PMID 1500757.
  18. ↑ Escobedo AA, Almirall P, Alfonso M, Cimerman S, Chacín-Bonilla L (2014). "Sexual transmission of giardiasis: a neglected route of spread?". Acta Trop. 132: 106–11. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2013.12.025. PMID 24434784.
  19. ↑ Pickering LK, Woodward WE, DuPont HL, Sullivan P (1984). "Occurrence of Giardia lamblia in children in day care centers". J Pediatr. 104 (4): 522–6. PMID 6707812.
  20. ↑ Lengerich EJ, Addiss DG, Juranek DD (1994). "Severe giardiasis in the United States". Clin Infect Dis. 18 (5): 760–3. PMID 8075266.
  21. ↑ Al FD, Kuştimur S, Ozekinci T, Balaban N, Ilhan MN (2006). "The use of enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) methods for diagnosis of Giardia intestinalis". Turkiye Parazitol Derg. 30 (4): 275–8. PMID 17309026.
  22. ↑ Claas EC, Burnham CA, Mazzulli T, Templeton K, Topin F (2013). "Performance of the xTAG® gastrointestinal pathogen panel, a multiplex molecular assay for simultaneous detection of bacterial, viral, and parasitic causes of infectious gastroenteritis". J Microbiol Biotechnol. 23 (7): 1041–5. PMID 23711521.
  23. ↑ Fung HB, Doan TL (2005). "Tinidazole: a nitroimidazole antiprotozoal agent". Clin Ther. 27 (12): 1859–84. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2005.12.012. PMID 16507373.
  24. ↑ Adachi S, Kotani K, Shimizu T, Tanaka K, Shimizu T, Okada K (2005). "Asymptomatic fascioliasis". Intern Med. 44 (9): 1013–5. PMID 16258225.
  25. ↑ Chan CW, Lam SK (1987). "Diseases caused by liver flukes and cholangiocarcinoma". Baillieres Clin Gastroenterol. 1 (2): 297–318. PMID 2822181.
  26. ↑ Arjona R, Riancho JA, Aguado JM, Salesa R, González-Macías J (1995). "Fascioliasis in developed countries: a review of classic and aberrant forms of the disease". Medicine (Baltimore). 74 (1): 13–23. PMID 7837967.
  27. ↑ Marcos LA, Terashima A, Gotuzzo E (2008). "Update on hepatobiliary flukes: fascioliasis, opisthorchiasis and clonorchiasis". Curr Opin Infect Dis. 21 (5): 523–30. doi:10.1097/QCO.0b013e32830f9818. PMID 18725803.
  28. ↑ Kaya M, Beştaş R, Cetin S (2011). "Clinical presentation and management of Fasciola hepatica infection: single-center experience". World J Gastroenterol. 17 (44): 4899–904. doi:10.3748/wjg.v17.i44.4899. PMC 3235633. PMID 22171131.
  29. ↑ Dias LM, Silva R, Viana HL, Palhinhas M, Viana RL (1996). "Biliary fascioliasis: diagnosis, treatment and follow-up by ERCP". Gastrointest Endosc. 43 (6): 616–20. PMID 8781945.
  30. ↑ Kaya M, Beştaş R, Cetin S (2011). "Clinical presentation and management of Fasciola hepatica infection: single-center experience". World J Gastroenterol. 17 (44): 4899–904. doi:10.3748/wjg.v17.i44.4899. PMC 3235633. PMID 22171131.
  31. ↑ Prociv P, Walker JC, Whitby M (1992). "Human ectopic fascioliasis in Australia: first case reports". Med J Aust. 156 (5): 349–51. PMID 1588869.
  32. ↑ Acosta-Ferreira W, Vercelli-Retta J, Falconi LM (1979). "Fasciola hepatica human infection. Histopathological study of sixteen cases". Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histol. 383 (3): 319–27. PMID 158874.
  33. ↑ Cevikol C, Karaali K, Senol U, Kabaalioğlu A, Apaydin A, Saba R; et al. (2003). "Human fascioliasis: MR imaging findings of hepatic lesions". Eur Radiol. 13 (1): 141–8. doi:10.1007/s00330-002-1470-7. PMID 12541122.
  34. ↑ Teke M, Önder H, Çiçek M, Hamidi C, Göya C, Çetinçakmak MG; et al. (2014). "Sonographic findings of hepatobiliary fascioliasis accompanied by extrahepatic expansion and ectopic lesions". J Ultrasound Med. 33 (12): 2105–11. doi:10.7863/ultra.33.12.2105. PMID 25425366.
  35. ↑ Keiser J, Utzinger J (2004). "Chemotherapy for major food-borne trematodes: a review". Expert Opin Pharmacother. 5 (8): 1711–26. doi:10.1517/14656566.5.8.1711. PMID 15264986.
  36. ↑ Gower CM, Gouvras AN, Lamberton PH, Deol A, Shrivastava J, Mutombo PN; et al. (2013). "Population genetic structure of Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haematobium from across six sub-Saharan African countries: implications for epidemiology, evolution and control". Acta Trop. 128 (2): 261–74. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2012.09.014. PMID 23041540.
  37. ↑ Rocha MO, Rocha RL, Pedroso ER, Greco DB, Ferreira CS, Lambertucci JR; et al. (1995). "Pulmonary manifestations in the initial phase of schistosomiasis mansoni". Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 37 (4): 311–8. PMID 8599059.
  38. ↑ Jauréguiberry S, Ansart S, Perez L, Danis M, Bricaire F, Caumes E (2007). "Acute neuroschistosomiasis: two cases associated with cerebral vasculitis". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 76 (5): 964–6. PMID 17488923.
  39. ↑ Lucey DR, Maguire JH (1993). "Schistosomiasis". Infect Dis Clin North Am. 7 (3): 635–53. PMID 8254164.
  40. ↑ Stothard JR, Sousa-Figueiredo JC, Betson M, Bustinduy A, Reinhard-Rupp J (2013). "Schistosomiasis in African infants and preschool children: let them now be treated!". Trends Parasitol. 29 (4): 197–205. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2013.02.001. PMC 3878762. PMID 23465781.
  41. ↑ Mu A, Fernandes I, Phillips D (2016). "A 57-Year-Old Woman With a Cecal Mass". Clin Infect Dis. 63 (5): 703–5. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw413. PMID 27521443.
  42. ↑ Gabbi C, Bertolotti M, Iori R, Rivasi F, Stanzani C, Maurantonio M; et al. (2006). "Acute abdomen associated with schistosomiasis of the appendix". Dig Dis Sci. 51 (1): 215–7. doi:10.1007/s10620-006-3111-5. PMID 16416239.
  43. ↑ Homeida M, Abdel-Gadir AF, Cheever AW, Bennett JL, Arbab BM, Ibrahium SZ; et al. (1988). "Diagnosis of pathologically confirmed Symmers' periportal fibrosis by ultrasonography: a prospective blinded study". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 38 (1): 86–91. PMID 3124648.
  44. ↑ Dessein AJ, Hillaire D, Elwali NE, Marquet S, Mohamed-Ali Q, Mirghani A; et al. (1999). "Severe hepatic fibrosis in Schistosoma mansoni infection is controlled by a major locus that is closely linked to the interferon-gamma receptor gene". Am J Hum Genet. 65 (3): 709–21. doi:10.1086/302526. PMC 1377977. PMID 10441577.
  45. ↑ Sarwat AK, Tag el Din MA, Bassiouni M, Ashmawi SS (1986). "Schistosomiasis of the lung". J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 16 (1): 359–66. PMID 3722898.
  46. ↑ FARID Z, GREER JW, ISHAK KG, EL-NAGAH AM, LEGOLVAN PC, MOUSA AH (1959). "Chronic pulmonary schistosomiasis". Am Rev Tuberc. 79 (2): 119–33. PMID 13627419.
  47. ↑ Silva IM, Thiengo R, Conceição MJ, Rey L, Pereira Filho E, Ribeiro PC (2006). "Cystoscopy in the diagnosis and follow-up of urinary schistosomiasis in Brazilian soldiers returning from Mozambique, Africa". Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 48 (1): 39–42. doi:/S0036-46652006000100008 Check |doi= value (help). PMID 16547578.
  48. ↑ Gryseels B, Polman K, Clerinx J, Kestens L (2006). "Human schistosomiasis". Lancet. 368 (9541): 1106–18. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69440-3. PMID 16997665.
  49. ↑ Mahmoud AA (1982). "The ecology of eosinophils in schistosomiasis". J Infect Dis. 145 (5): 613–22. PMID 7042854.
  50. ↑ Tsang VC, Wilkins PP (1991). "Immunodiagnosis of schistosomiasis. Screen with FAST-ELISA and confirm with immunoblot". Clin Lab Med. 11 (4): 1029–39. PMID 1802520.
  51. ↑ Webster BL, Rollinson D, Stothard JR, Huyse T (2010). "Rapid diagnostic multiplex PCR (RD-PCR) to discriminate Schistosoma haematobium and S. bovis". J Helminthol. 84 (1): 107–14. doi:10.1017/S0022149X09990447. PMID 19646307.
  52. ↑ Harries AD, Fryatt R, Walker J, Chiodini PL, Bryceson AD (1986). "Schistosomiasis in expatriates returning to Britain from the tropics: a controlled study". Lancet. 1 (8472): 86–8. PMID 2867326.
  53. ↑ Cioli D, Pica-Mattoccia L, Basso A, Guidi A (2014). "Schistosomiasis control: praziquantel forever?". Mol Biochem Parasitol. 195 (1): 23–9. doi:10.1016/j.molbiopara.2014.06.002. PMID 24955523.
  54. ↑ Araújo N, Kohn A, Katz N (1991). "Activity of the artemether in experimental schistosomiasis mansoni". Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 86 Suppl 2: 185–8. PMID 1841998.
  55. ↑ Jourdan PM, Lamberton PHL, Fenwick A, Addiss DG (2017). "Soil-transmitted helminth infections". Lancet. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31930-X. PMID 28882382.
  56. ↑ Scowden EB, Schaffner W, Stone WJ (1978). "Overwhelming strongyloidiasis: an unappreciated opportunistic infection". Medicine (Baltimore). 57 (6): 527–44. PMID 362122.
  57. ↑ Boulware DR, Stauffer WM, Walker PF (2008). "Hypereosinophilic syndrome and mepolizumab". N Engl J Med. 358 (26): 2839, author reply 2839-40. PMC 2596663. PMID 18589879.
  58. ↑ Carroll SM, Karthigasu KT, Grove DI (1981). "Serodiagnosis of human strongyloidiasis by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay". Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 75 (5): 706–9. PMID 7036430.
  59. ↑ Sreenivas DV, Kumar A, Kumar YR, Bharavi C, Sundaram C, Gayathri K (1997). "Intestinal strongyloidiasis--a rare opportunistic infection". Indian J Gastroenterol. 16 (3): 105–6. PMID 9248183.
  60. ↑ Qu Z, Kundu UR, Abadeer RA, Wanger A (2009). "Strongyloides colitis is a lethal mimic of ulcerative colitis: the key morphologic differential diagnosis". Hum Pathol. 40 (4): 572–7. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2008.10.008. PMID 19144377.
  61. ↑ Zaha O, Hirata T, Kinjo F, Saito A, Fukuhara H (2002). "Efficacy of ivermectin for chronic strongyloidiasis: two single doses given 2 weeks apart". J Infect Chemother. 8 (1): 94–8. doi:10.1007/s101560200013. PMID 11957127.
  62. ↑ Archibald LK, Beeching NJ, Gill GV, Bailey JW, Bell DR (1993). "Albendazole is effective treatment for chronic strongyloidiasis". Q J Med. 86 (3): 191–5. PMID 8483992.
  63. ↑ Weinke T, Friedrich-Jänicke B, Hopp P, Janitschke K (1990). "Prevalence and clinical importance of Entamoeba histolytica in two high-risk groups: travelers returning from the tropics and male homosexuals". J Infect Dis. 161 (5): 1029–31. PMID 2324531.
  64. ↑ Ximénez C, Cerritos R, Rojas L, Dolabella S, Morán P, Shibayama M; et al. (2010). "Human amebiasis: breaking the paradigm?". Int J Environ Res Public Health. 7 (3): 1105–20. doi:10.3390/ijerph7031105. PMC 2872301. PMID 20617021.
  65. ↑ Gonzales ML, Dans LF, Martinez EG (2009). "Antiamoebic drugs for treating amoebic colitis". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2): CD006085. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006085.pub2. PMID 19370624.
  66. ↑ Misra SP, Misra V, Dwivedi M (2006). "Ileocecal masses in patients with amebic liver abscess: etiology and management". World J Gastroenterol. 12 (12): 1933–6. PMC 4087520. PMID 16610001.
  67. ↑ Rayan HZ (2005). "Microscopic overdiagnosis of intestinal amoebiasis". J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 35 (3): 941–51. PMID 16333901.
  68. ↑ González-Ruíz A, Haque R, Rehman T, Aguirre A, Castañón G, Hall A; et al. (1992). "Further diagnostic use of an invasive-specific monoclonal antibody against Entamoeba histolytica". Arch Med Res. 23 (2): 281–3. PMID 1340315.
  69. ↑ Rayan HZ (2005). "Microscopic overdiagnosis of intestinal amoebiasis". J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 35 (3): 941–51. PMID 16333901.
  70. ↑ Haque R, Huston CD, Hughes M, Houpt E, Petri WA (2003). "Amebiasis". N Engl J Med. 348 (16): 1565–73. doi:10.1056/NEJMra022710. PMID 12700377.
  71. ↑ Forrester JE, Bailar JC, Esrey SA, José MV, Castillejos BT, Ocampo G (1998). "Randomised trial of albendazole and pyrantel in symptomless trichuriasis in children". Lancet. 352 (9134): 1103–8. PMID 9798586.
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 Ohnishi K, Sakamoto N, Kobayashi K, Iwabuchi S, Nakamura-Uchiyama F (2013). "Therapeutic effect of praziquantel against Taeniasis asiatica". Int J Infect Dis. 17 (8): e656–7. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2013.02.028. PMID 23618773.
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Pawłowski ZS (1990). "Efficacy of low doses of praziquantel in taeniasis". Acta Trop. 48 (2): 83–8. PMID 1980572.
  74. ↑ Forrester JE, Bailar JC, Esrey SA, José MV, Castillejos BT, Ocampo G (1998). "Randomised trial of albendazole and pyrantel in symptomless trichuriasis in children". Lancet. 352 (9134): 1103–8. PMID 9798586.
  75. ↑ Forrester JE, Bailar JC, Esrey SA, José MV, Castillejos BT, Ocampo G (1998). "Randomised trial of albendazole and pyrantel in symptomless trichuriasis in children". Lancet. 352 (9134): 1103–8. PMID 9798586.
  76. ↑ Phuphisut O, Yoonuan T, Sanguankiat S, Chaisiri K, Maipanich W, Pubampen S; et al. (2014). "Triplex polymerase chain reaction assay for detection of major soil-transmitted helminths, Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, Necator americanus, in fecal samples". Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 45 (2): 267–75. PMID 24968666.
  77. ↑ Rossignol JF, Maisonneuve H (1984). "Benzimidazoles in the treatment of trichuriasis: a review". Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 78 (2): 135–44. PMID 6378109.
  78. ↑ Steinmann P, Utzinger J, Du ZW, Jiang JY, Chen JX, Hattendorf J; et al. (2011). "Efficacy of single-dose and triple-dose albendazole and mebendazole against soil-transmitted helminths and Taenia spp.: a randomized controlled trial". PLoS One. 6 (9): e25003. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025003. PMC 3181256. PMID 21980373.
  79. ↑ Utzinger J, Botero-Kleiven S, Castelli F, Chiodini PL, Edwards H, Köhler N; et al. (2010). "Microscopic diagnosis of sodium acetate-acetic acid-formalin-fixed stool samples for helminths and intestinal protozoa: a comparison among European reference laboratories". Clin Microbiol Infect. 16 (3): 267–73. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02782.x. PMID 19456836.
  80. ↑ Muehlenbachs A, Bhatnagar J, Agudelo CA, Hidron A, Eberhard ML, Mathison BA; et al. (2015). "Malignant Transformation of Hymenolepis nana in a Human Host". N Engl J Med. 373 (19): 1845–52. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1505892. PMID 26535513.
  81. ↑ Steinmann P, Cringoli G, Bruschi F, Matthys B, Lohourignon LK, Castagna B; et al. (2012). "FLOTAC for the diagnosis of Hymenolepis spp. infection: proof-of-concept and comparing diagnostic accuracy with other methods". Parasitol Res. 111 (2): 749–54. doi:10.1007/s00436-012-2895-9. PMID 22461006.
Retrieved from "https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php?title=Abdominal_parasitic_infection&oldid=1449754"