Systemic lupus erythematosus natural history, complications and prognosis: Difference between revisions
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Common complications of systemic lupus erythematosus include [[dermatitis]], [[nephritis]] and [[arthritis]]. [[Prognosis]] is generally poor, and the 10-year [[mortality rate]] of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus is approximately 40%. The disease course can be divided into 4 subcategories based on the course of the disease: developmental phase, preclinical phase, clinical phase, and comorbid complication phase. | Common complications of systemic lupus erythematosus include [[dermatitis]], [[nephritis]] and [[arthritis]]. [[Prognosis]] is generally poor, and the 10-year [[mortality rate]] of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus is approximately 40%. The disease course can be divided into 4 subcategories based on the course of the disease: developmental phase, preclinical phase, clinical phase, and comorbid complication phase. | ||
==Natural History== | ==Natural History== | ||
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an [[autoimmune disease]]. SLE | Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an [[autoimmune disease]]. SLE involves many flare ups. SLE usually develops in the second and third decade of life, although it can present any age, and start with mild symptoms such as [[fatigue]], [[fever]], and skin [[rashes]]. Without treatment, the patient will develop symptoms of [[end organ damage]], which will eventually lead to death in most patients. | ||
The disease course can be divided into 4 subcategories based on the course of the disease:<ref name="pmid22028590">{{cite journal |vauthors=Iwata Y, Furuichi K, Kaneko S, Wada T |title=The role of cytokine in the lupus nephritis |journal=J. Biomed. Biotechnol. |volume=2011 |issue= |pages=594809 |year=2011 |pmid=22028590 |pmc=3199078 |doi=10.1155/2011/594809 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18305268">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rahman A, Isenberg DA |title=Systemic lupus erythematosus |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=358 |issue=9 |pages=929–39 |year=2008 |pmid=18305268 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra071297 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid1893619">{{cite journal |vauthors=Deguchi Y, Kishimoto S |title=Tumour necrosis factor/cachectin plays a key role in autoimmune pulmonary inflammation in lupus-prone mice |journal=Clin. Exp. Immunol. |volume=85 |issue=3 |pages=392–5 |year=1991 |pmid=1893619 |pmc=1535595 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
===== Developmental phase: ===== | ===== Developmental phase: ===== | ||
Line 33: | Line 35: | ||
*[[Malignancies]] | *[[Malignancies]] | ||
=== Factors associated with flare up:<ref name="pmid1893619">{{cite journal |vauthors=Deguchi Y, Kishimoto S |title=Tumour necrosis factor/cachectin plays a key role in autoimmune pulmonary inflammation in lupus-prone mice |journal=Clin. Exp. Immunol. |volume=85 |issue=3 |pages=392–5 |year=1991 |pmid=1893619 |pmc=1535595 |doi= |url=}}</ref> === | === Factors associated with flare up: <ref name="pmid26330673">{{cite journal |vauthors=Crow MK, Olferiev M, Kirou KA |title=Identification of Candidate Predictors of Lupus Flare |journal=Trans. Am. Clin. Climatol. Assoc. |volume=126 |issue= |pages=184–96 |year=2015 |pmid=26330673 |pmc=4530671 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid1893619">{{cite journal |vauthors=Deguchi Y, Kishimoto S |title=Tumour necrosis factor/cachectin plays a key role in autoimmune pulmonary inflammation in lupus-prone mice |journal=Clin. Exp. Immunol. |volume=85 |issue=3 |pages=392–5 |year=1991 |pmid=1893619 |pmc=1535595 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid3199078">{{cite journal |vauthors=Josić D, Hofmann W, Habermann R, Schulzke JD, Reutter W |title=Isolation of immunoglobulins and their use in immunoaffinity HPLC |journal=J. Clin. Chem. Clin. Biochem. |volume=26 |issue=9 |pages=559–68 |year=1988 |pmid=3199078 |doi= |url=}}</ref> === | ||
* [[Stress]] (emotional etc.) | * [[Stress]] (emotional, etc.) | ||
* [[Sunlight]] | * [[Sunlight]] | ||
* [[Ultraviolet]] light | * [[Ultraviolet]] light | ||
Line 49: | Line 51: | ||
* Presence of [[vasculitis]] | * Presence of [[vasculitis]] | ||
* Elevated anti-dsDNA | * Elevated anti-dsDNA | ||
* Low | * Low C3 level | ||
==Complications== | ==Complications== | ||
Complications that can develop as a result of prolonged activation of systemic lupus erythematosus or the SLE therapy are:: | Complications that can develop as a result of prolonged activation of systemic lupus erythematosus or the SLE therapy are:<ref name="pmid23395811">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gurevitz SL, Snyder JA, Wessel EK, Frey J, Williamson BA |title=Systemic lupus erythematosus: a review of the disease and treatment options |journal=Consult Pharm |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=110–21 |year=2013 |pmid=23395811 |doi=10.4140/TCP.n.2013.110 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24234325">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zubair A, Frieri M |title=Lupus nephritis: review of the literature |journal=Curr Allergy Asthma Rep |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=580–6 |year=2013 |pmid=24234325 |doi=10.1007/s11882-013-0394-4 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20477476">{{cite journal |vauthors=Torres A, Askari AD, Malemud CJ |title=Cardiovascular disease complications in systemic lupus erythematosus |journal=Biomark Med |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=239–52 |year=2009 |pmid=20477476 |doi=10.2217/bmm.09.14 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18852220">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cortes S, Chambers S, Jerónimo A, Isenberg D |title=Diabetes mellitus complicating systemic lupus erythematosus - analysis of the UCL lupus cohort and review of the literature |journal=Lupus |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=977–80 |year=2008 |pmid=18852220 |doi=10.1177/0961203308091539 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18703174">{{cite journal |vauthors=Doria A, Canova M, Tonon M, Zen M, Rampudda E, Bassi N, Atzeni F, Zampieri S, Ghirardello A |title=Infections as triggers and complications of systemic lupus erythematosus |journal=Autoimmun Rev |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=24–8 |year=2008 |pmid=18703174 |doi=10.1016/j.autrev.2008.07.019 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid6127033">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zizic TM, Classen JN, Stevens MB |title=Acute abdominal complications of systemic lupus erythematosus and polyarteritis nodosa |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=73 |issue=4 |pages=525–31 |year=1982 |pmid=6127033 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22879850">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cojocaru M, Cojocaru IM, Silosi I, Vrabie CD |title=Manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus |journal=Maedica (Buchar) |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=330–6 |year=2011 |pmid=22879850 |pmc=3391953 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18456233">{{cite journal |vauthors=Clowse ME, Jamison M, Myers E, James AH |title=A national study of the complications of lupus in pregnancy |journal=Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. |volume=199 |issue=2 |pages=127.e1–6 |year=2008 |pmid=18456233 |pmc=2542836 |doi=10.1016/j.ajog.2008.03.012 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25369438">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bhattacharyya S, Helfgott SM |title=Neurologic complications of systemic lupus erythematosus, sjögren syndrome, and rheumatoid arthritis |journal=Semin Neurol |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=425–36 |year=2014 |pmid=25369438 |doi=10.1055/s-0034-1390391 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27329649">{{cite journal |vauthors=Alves SC, Fasano S, Isenberg DA |title=Autoimmune gastrointestinal complications in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: case series and literature review |journal=Lupus |volume=25 |issue=14 |pages=1509–1519 |year=2016 |pmid=27329649 |doi=10.1177/0961203316655210 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12960476">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kang I, Park SH |title=Infectious complications in SLE after immunosuppressive therapies |journal=Curr Opin Rheumatol |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=528–34 |year=2003 |pmid=12960476 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
(Up arrows represent higher frequencies and down arrows represent lower frequencies) | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; " |Organ | ! style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; " |Organ | ||
Line 199: | Line 204: | ||
** [[Heart failure]] | ** [[Heart failure]] | ||
** [[Sudden death]] | ** [[Sudden death]] | ||
* [[Myonecrosis]] | * [[Myonecrosis]] may happen as a consequence of [[autoimmune]] reaction | ||
|↓ | |↓ | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 252: | Line 257: | ||
| | | | ||
* Most common in the [[Femoral|femoral head]] | * Most common in the [[Femoral|femoral head]] | ||
* Can involve [[Humerus|humeral head]], [[Tibial|tibial plateau]], and scaphoid | * Can involve [[Humerus|humeral head]], [[Tibial|tibial plateau]], and scaphoid navicular | ||
* Usually [[bilateral]] | * Usually [[bilateral]] | ||
* Often [[asymptomatic]] | * Often [[asymptomatic]] | ||
Line 267: | Line 272: | ||
*Mostly due to [[glucocorticoid]] usage | *Mostly due to [[glucocorticoid]] usage | ||
*Loss of height | *Loss of height | ||
* | *Sudden back pain | ||
|↑ | |↑ | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 286: | Line 291: | ||
|↑ | |↑ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="center" style="background: #DCDCDC; " | | | align="center" style="background: #DCDCDC; " |Oral and nasal ulcers | ||
| | | | ||
* Usually painless | * Usually painless | ||
Line 307: | Line 312: | ||
|↓↓↓ | |↓↓↓ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| align="center" style="background: #DCDCDC; " |[[Diabetes mellitus]] | | align="center" style="background: #DCDCDC; " |[[Diabetes mellitus]] | ||
| | | | ||
* Increase predisposition to: | * Increase predisposition to: | ||
** [[Lupus nephritis]] | ** [[Lupus nephritis]] | ||
** [[Peripheral neuropathy]] | ** [[Peripheral neuropathy]] | ||
** [[ | ** [[Retinal disease]] | ||
|↓ | |↓ | ||
|} | |} | ||
==Prognosis== | ==Prognosis== | ||
The prognosis of systemic lupus erythematosus | The prognosis of systemic lupus erythematosus ranges from a [[benign]] illness to an extremely rapid progressive disease that can lead to a [[Fulminant|fulminant organ failure]] and death. Without treatment, systemic lupus eryhtematosus will result in a very high [[mortality rate]], with a report of more than 60% mortality rate during the mid-20th century. SLE is associated with a 10 year mortality of more than 50% among patients with [[nephritis]]. The presence of [[nephritis]] is associated with a particularly poor prognosis among patients with SLE. The increase in [[survival rate]] of patients and better prognosis may be due to increased disease recognition with more sensitive diagnostic tests, earlier diagnosis or treatment, the inclusion of milder cases, increasingly judicious therapy, and prompt treatment of complications. Although improvement in SLE diagnosis have led to better [[prognosis]], the [[mortality rate]] among SLE patients is still 5 times more than normal population.<ref name="pmid24851681">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ren Y, Feng X, Zou Y, Pan W, Wang X, Pan J, Zhang M, Tao J, Zhang Y, Tan K, Li J, Ding X, Qian X, Da Z, Wang M, Chen Z, Sun L |title=[Clinical features and prognosis of patients with lupus nephritis] |language=Chinese |journal=Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi |volume=94 |issue=13 |pages=973–6 |year=2014 |pmid=24851681 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27307448">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ugarte A, Ruiz-Irastorza G |title=SLE: the changing prognosis |journal=Lupus |volume=25 |issue=12 |pages=1285–7 |year=2016 |pmid=27307448 |doi=10.1177/0961203316652948 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20453401">{{cite journal |vauthors=Matsuyama N, Morimoto S, Tokano Y, Amano H, Nozawa K, Isonuma H, Hashimoto H, Takasaki Y |title=The long-term prognosis of lupus nephritis patients treated with intravenous cyclophosphamide |journal=Intern. Med. |volume=49 |issue=9 |pages=823–8 |year=2010 |pmid=20453401 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26434992">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sabio JM |title=[Systemic lupus erythematosus today] |language=Spanish; Castilian |journal=Med Clin (Barc) |volume=146 |issue=4 |pages=160–2 |year=2016 |pmid=26434992 |doi=10.1016/j.medcli.2015.08.001 |url=}}</ref> | ||
=== Poor prognostic factors for SLE survival: === | === Poor prognostic factors for SLE survival: <ref name="pmid24881804">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lisnevskaia L, Murphy G, Isenberg D |title=Systemic lupus erythematosus |journal=Lancet |volume=384 |issue=9957 |pages=1878–88 |year=2014 |pmid=24881804 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60128-8 |url=}}</ref> === | ||
* Presence of [[nephritis]] (especially diffuse proliferative glomerulonephritis) | * Presence of [[nephritis]] (especially diffuse proliferative glomerulonephritis) | ||
* [[Hypertension]] | * [[Hypertension]] | ||
Line 330: | Line 335: | ||
* High overall disease activity | * High overall disease activity | ||
=== Prognosis markers:<ref name="pmid24881804">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lisnevskaia L, Murphy G, Isenberg D |title=Systemic lupus erythematosus |journal=Lancet |volume=384 |issue=9957 |pages=1878–88 |year=2014 |pmid=24881804 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60128-8 |url=}}</ref> === | === Prognosis markers: <ref name="pmid24881804">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lisnevskaia L, Murphy G, Isenberg D |title=Systemic lupus erythematosus |journal=Lancet |volume=384 |issue=9957 |pages=1878–88 |year=2014 |pmid=24881804 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60128-8 |url=}}</ref>=== | ||
===== Serum anti ds-DNA titres correlated with: ===== | ===== Serum anti ds-DNA titres correlated with: ===== | ||
** [[Lupus nephritis]] | ** [[Lupus nephritis]] | ||
Line 343: | Line 348: | ||
** Increase in mortality rate | ** Increase in mortality rate | ||
=== SLE in men compared to women: === | === SLE in men compared to women: <ref name="pmid19784840">{{cite journal |vauthors=de Carvalho JF, do Nascimento AP, Testagrossa LA, Barros RT, Bonfá E |title=Male gender results in more severe lupus nephritis |journal=Rheumatol. Int. |volume=30 |issue=10 |pages=1311–5 |year=2010 |pmid=19784840 |doi=10.1007/s00296-009-1151-9 |url=}}</ref>=== | ||
* Less [[photosensitivity]] | * Less [[photosensitivity]] | ||
* More [[serositis]] | * More [[serositis]] | ||
Line 349: | Line 354: | ||
* Higher 1 year mortality compared to women | * Higher 1 year mortality compared to women | ||
=== SLE in the elderly (>65) compared to middle age prevalency: === | === SLE in the elderly (>65) compared to middle age prevalency: <ref name="pmid24297642">{{cite journal |vauthors=Feng X, Zou Y, Pan W, Wang X, Wu M, Zhang M, Tao J, Zhang Y, Tan K, Li J, Chen Z, Ding X, Qian X, Da Z, Wang M, Sun L |title=Associations of clinical features and prognosis with age at disease onset in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus |journal=Lupus |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=327–34 |year=2014 |pmid=24297642 |doi=10.1177/0961203313513508 |url=}}</ref> === | ||
* Lower incidence of: | * Lower incidence of: | ||
** [[Malar rash]] | ** [[Malar rash]] |
Revision as of 20:55, 31 July 2017
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Mahshid Mir, M.D. [2]
Overview
Common complications of systemic lupus erythematosus include dermatitis, nephritis and arthritis. Prognosis is generally poor, and the 10-year mortality rate of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus is approximately 40%. The disease course can be divided into 4 subcategories based on the course of the disease: developmental phase, preclinical phase, clinical phase, and comorbid complication phase.
Natural History
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease. SLE involves many flare ups. SLE usually develops in the second and third decade of life, although it can present any age, and start with mild symptoms such as fatigue, fever, and skin rashes. Without treatment, the patient will develop symptoms of end organ damage, which will eventually lead to death in most patients.
The disease course can be divided into 4 subcategories based on the course of the disease:[1][2][3]
Developmental phase:
- Genetic mutations
- UV radiation exposure
- Smoking
Preclinical phase:
- Mostly associated with auto-immune antibody production
- Autoantibodies common to other systemic autoimmune diseases
- Proceeds with a more disease-specific clinically overt autoimmune phase
Clinical phase:
- The phase due to damages of the autoantibodies to the body tissues (mostly related to disease itself)
- Inflammation
- Involvement of first organs
- Flares
- Involvement of additional organs
- Early damages (e.g. alopecia, fixed erythema, cognitive dysfunction, valvular heart disease, avascular necrosis, tendon rupture, Jaccoud’s arthropathy, and osteoporosis)
Comorbidity-complication phase
The phase of damages due to complications of longstanding disease, immunosuppressive therapy, and end organ damages (irreversible damages and complications)
Factors associated with flare up: [4][3][5]
- Stress (emotional, etc.)
- Sunlight
- Ultraviolet light
- Infection
- Injuries
- Surgery
- Pregnancy
- Abrupt discontinuation of medications
- Treatment noncompliance
- Medications
- Immunizations
- Lupus nephritis
- Presence of neurologic complications
- Presence of vasculitis
- Elevated anti-dsDNA
- Low C3 level
Complications
Complications that can develop as a result of prolonged activation of systemic lupus erythematosus or the SLE therapy are:[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]
(Up arrows represent higher frequencies and down arrows represent lower frequencies)
Organ | Disease | Description | Frequency |
---|---|---|---|
Gastrointestinal | Dysphagia |
|
↑↑↑ |
Peptic ulcer disease |
|
↑ | |
Intestinal pseudo-obstruction |
|
↓↓ | |
Protein-losing enteropathy |
|
↓↓ | |
Hepatitis |
|
↑ | |
Acute pancreatitis |
|
↓ | |
Mesenteric vasculitis |
|
↓↓ | |
Acute cholecystitis |
|
↓↓ | |
Pulmonary | Pleural disease |
|
↑ |
Acute pneumonitis |
|
↓↓ | |
Pulmonary hemorrhage |
|
↓↓ | |
Pulmonary hypertension |
|
↑ | |
Thromboembolic disease |
|
↑ | |
Shrinking lung syndrome |
|
↓↓ | |
Cardiac | Cardiomegaly | ↑↑ | |
Valvular disease |
|
↑↑ | |
Pericardial disease | ↓ | ||
Myocarditis |
|
↓ | |
Coronary artery disease |
|
↑↑ | |
Neurological | Cognitive dysfunction |
|
↑ |
Stroke |
|
↓ | |
Seizures |
|
↑ | |
Psychosis |
|
↑↑ | |
Neuropathies |
|
↑↑ | |
Musculoskeletal | Arthritis |
|
↑↑↑↑ |
Osteonecrosis (Avascular necrosis) |
|
↓ | |
Subcutaneous nodules |
|
↑ | |
Osteoporosis |
|
↑ | |
Skin | Cutaneous lupus erythematosus |
|
↑ |
Photosensitivity |
|
↑↑↑ | |
Non-scarring alopecia |
|
↑ | |
Oral and nasal ulcers |
|
↑↑ | |
Discoid lesions |
|
↑ | |
Very rare disorders | Malignancy | ↓↓↓ | |
Diabetes mellitus |
|
↓ |
Prognosis
The prognosis of systemic lupus erythematosus ranges from a benign illness to an extremely rapid progressive disease that can lead to a fulminant organ failure and death. Without treatment, systemic lupus eryhtematosus will result in a very high mortality rate, with a report of more than 60% mortality rate during the mid-20th century. SLE is associated with a 10 year mortality of more than 50% among patients with nephritis. The presence of nephritis is associated with a particularly poor prognosis among patients with SLE. The increase in survival rate of patients and better prognosis may be due to increased disease recognition with more sensitive diagnostic tests, earlier diagnosis or treatment, the inclusion of milder cases, increasingly judicious therapy, and prompt treatment of complications. Although improvement in SLE diagnosis have led to better prognosis, the mortality rate among SLE patients is still 5 times more than normal population.[17][18][19][20]
Poor prognostic factors for SLE survival: [21]
- Presence of nephritis (especially diffuse proliferative glomerulonephritis)
- Hypertension
- Male sex
- Young age
- Older age at presentation
- Low socioeconomic status
- Black race: Higher rate of nephritis
- Presence of antiphospholipid antibodies
- High overall disease activity
Prognosis markers: [21]
- Lupus nephritis
- Progression to end-stage renal disease
- Increased disease severity
- Damage or poor survival
- Features of the antiphospholipid syndrome (APS)
- CNS involvement
- Severe lupus nephritis
- Increase in mortality rate
SLE in men compared to women: [22]
- Less photosensitivity
- More serositis
- Older age at diagnosis
- Higher 1 year mortality compared to women
SLE in the elderly (>65) compared to middle age prevalency: [23]
- Lower incidence of:
- Greater prevalence of:
- Serositis
- Pulmonary involvement
- Sicca syndrome
- Musculoskeletal manifestations
References
- ↑ Iwata Y, Furuichi K, Kaneko S, Wada T (2011). "The role of cytokine in the lupus nephritis". J. Biomed. Biotechnol. 2011: 594809. doi:10.1155/2011/594809. PMC 3199078. PMID 22028590.
- ↑ Rahman A, Isenberg DA (2008). "Systemic lupus erythematosus". N. Engl. J. Med. 358 (9): 929–39. doi:10.1056/NEJMra071297. PMID 18305268.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Deguchi Y, Kishimoto S (1991). "Tumour necrosis factor/cachectin plays a key role in autoimmune pulmonary inflammation in lupus-prone mice". Clin. Exp. Immunol. 85 (3): 392–5. PMC 1535595. PMID 1893619.
- ↑ Crow MK, Olferiev M, Kirou KA (2015). "Identification of Candidate Predictors of Lupus Flare". Trans. Am. Clin. Climatol. Assoc. 126: 184–96. PMC 4530671. PMID 26330673.
- ↑ Josić D, Hofmann W, Habermann R, Schulzke JD, Reutter W (1988). "Isolation of immunoglobulins and their use in immunoaffinity HPLC". J. Clin. Chem. Clin. Biochem. 26 (9): 559–68. PMID 3199078.
- ↑ Gurevitz SL, Snyder JA, Wessel EK, Frey J, Williamson BA (2013). "Systemic lupus erythematosus: a review of the disease and treatment options". Consult Pharm. 28 (2): 110–21. doi:10.4140/TCP.n.2013.110. PMID 23395811.
- ↑ Zubair A, Frieri M (2013). "Lupus nephritis: review of the literature". Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 13 (6): 580–6. doi:10.1007/s11882-013-0394-4. PMID 24234325.
- ↑ Torres A, Askari AD, Malemud CJ (2009). "Cardiovascular disease complications in systemic lupus erythematosus". Biomark Med. 3 (3): 239–52. doi:10.2217/bmm.09.14. PMID 20477476.
- ↑ Cortes S, Chambers S, Jerónimo A, Isenberg D (2008). "Diabetes mellitus complicating systemic lupus erythematosus - analysis of the UCL lupus cohort and review of the literature". Lupus. 17 (11): 977–80. doi:10.1177/0961203308091539. PMID 18852220.
- ↑ Doria A, Canova M, Tonon M, Zen M, Rampudda E, Bassi N, Atzeni F, Zampieri S, Ghirardello A (2008). "Infections as triggers and complications of systemic lupus erythematosus". Autoimmun Rev. 8 (1): 24–8. doi:10.1016/j.autrev.2008.07.019. PMID 18703174.
- ↑ Zizic TM, Classen JN, Stevens MB (1982). "Acute abdominal complications of systemic lupus erythematosus and polyarteritis nodosa". Am. J. Med. 73 (4): 525–31. PMID 6127033.
- ↑ Cojocaru M, Cojocaru IM, Silosi I, Vrabie CD (2011). "Manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus". Maedica (Buchar). 6 (4): 330–6. PMC 3391953. PMID 22879850.
- ↑ Clowse ME, Jamison M, Myers E, James AH (2008). "A national study of the complications of lupus in pregnancy". Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 199 (2): 127.e1–6. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2008.03.012. PMC 2542836. PMID 18456233.
- ↑ Bhattacharyya S, Helfgott SM (2014). "Neurologic complications of systemic lupus erythematosus, sjögren syndrome, and rheumatoid arthritis". Semin Neurol. 34 (4): 425–36. doi:10.1055/s-0034-1390391. PMID 25369438.
- ↑ Alves SC, Fasano S, Isenberg DA (2016). "Autoimmune gastrointestinal complications in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: case series and literature review". Lupus. 25 (14): 1509–1519. doi:10.1177/0961203316655210. PMID 27329649.
- ↑ Kang I, Park SH (2003). "Infectious complications in SLE after immunosuppressive therapies". Curr Opin Rheumatol. 15 (5): 528–34. PMID 12960476.
- ↑ Ren Y, Feng X, Zou Y, Pan W, Wang X, Pan J, Zhang M, Tao J, Zhang Y, Tan K, Li J, Ding X, Qian X, Da Z, Wang M, Chen Z, Sun L (2014). "[Clinical features and prognosis of patients with lupus nephritis]". Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi (in Chinese). 94 (13): 973–6. PMID 24851681.
- ↑ Ugarte A, Ruiz-Irastorza G (2016). "SLE: the changing prognosis". Lupus. 25 (12): 1285–7. doi:10.1177/0961203316652948. PMID 27307448.
- ↑ Matsuyama N, Morimoto S, Tokano Y, Amano H, Nozawa K, Isonuma H, Hashimoto H, Takasaki Y (2010). "The long-term prognosis of lupus nephritis patients treated with intravenous cyclophosphamide". Intern. Med. 49 (9): 823–8. PMID 20453401.
- ↑ Sabio JM (2016). "[Systemic lupus erythematosus today]". Med Clin (Barc) (in Spanish; Castilian). 146 (4): 160–2. doi:10.1016/j.medcli.2015.08.001. PMID 26434992.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Lisnevskaia L, Murphy G, Isenberg D (2014). "Systemic lupus erythematosus". Lancet. 384 (9957): 1878–88. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60128-8. PMID 24881804.
- ↑ de Carvalho JF, do Nascimento AP, Testagrossa LA, Barros RT, Bonfá E (2010). "Male gender results in more severe lupus nephritis". Rheumatol. Int. 30 (10): 1311–5. doi:10.1007/s00296-009-1151-9. PMID 19784840.
- ↑ Feng X, Zou Y, Pan W, Wang X, Wu M, Zhang M, Tao J, Zhang Y, Tan K, Li J, Chen Z, Ding X, Qian X, Da Z, Wang M, Sun L (2014). "Associations of clinical features and prognosis with age at disease onset in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus". Lupus. 23 (3): 327–34. doi:10.1177/0961203313513508. PMID 24297642.