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===Retinitis, CMV===
===Retinitis, CMV===
*'''Cytomegalovirus retinitis'''
*'''Cytomegalovirus retinitis'''<ref>{{cite book | last = Bennett | first = John | title = Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases | publisher = Elsevier/Saunders | location = Philadelphia, PA | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1455748013 }}</ref>
:*Preferred regimen (Initial therapy) : [[Ganciclovir]] at a dose of 7.5 to 15 mg/kg/day intravenous for 3 weeks in 3 divided doses for 14 to 21 days, followed by a maintenance regimen.
:*Preferred regimen (Initial therapy) : [[Ganciclovir]] at a dose of 7.5 to 15 mg/kg/day intravenous for 3 weeks in 3 divided doses for 14 to 21 days, followed by a maintenance regimen.
:* Preferred regimen (Maintenance therapy) : ganciclovir 5 to 6 mg/kg/day intravenous for 5 to 7 days per week to prevent relapse.
:* Preferred regimen (Maintenance therapy) : ganciclovir 5 to 6 mg/kg/day intravenous for 5 to 7 days per week to prevent relapse.

Revision as of 19:34, 9 June 2015

Conjunctivitis

  • Conjunctivitis, acute[1]
  • Bacterial conjunctivitis
  • Empiric antimicrobial therapy
Note: Topical steroids are not recommended for bacterial conjunctivitis.
  • Pathogen-directed antimicrobial therapy
  • Chlamydia trachomatis
  • Inclusion conjunctivitis
  • Conjunctivitis secondary to trachoma
  • Neisseria gonorrhoeae
  • Hyperacute bacterial conjunctivitis, adult
Note: Dual therapy to cover Chlamydia is indicated.
  • Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant (MRSA)
  • Herpetic conjunctivitis
  • Herpes simplex virus
  • Preferred regimen: Acyclovir 1 drop topical 9 times per day OR Acyclovir 400 mg PO 5 times per day for 7-10 days OR Valacyclovir 500 mg PO tid for 7-10 days
Note: Topical steroids should be avoided.
  • Varicella zoster virus
Note: Treatment usually consists of a combination of oral antivirals and topical steroids.

Blepharitis

  • Empiric therapy[2]
  • Blepharitis
Note (1): Cure is usually not possible with blepharitis. Eyelid hygiene may provide symptomatic relief for both anterior and posterior blepharitis.
Note (2): Cyclosporine topical drops 0.05% may be helpful in some patients with posterior blepharitis.
  • Specific considerations
  • Meibomian gland dysfunction:
Note (1): Tetracyclines are contraindicated in pregnancy, nursing women and those with history of hypersenstivity to tetracycline.
Note (2): Patients with contact-lens-associated giant papillary conjunctivitis have an increased frequency of meibomian gland dysfunction.
  • Dry eye
  • Dermatological conditions with seborrheic blepharitis and meibomian gland dysfunction
Note: In some patients Azithromycin oral may lead to abnormalities in electrical activity of heart with the potential to create serious irregularities in heart rhythm.
  • Demodicosis
Preferred regimen: Metronidazole gel to eyelid skin
Alternative regimen: Ivermectin oral in recalcitrant Demodex bleharitis
  • Ocular Rosacea
Note (1): In patients with chronic blepharitis that does not respond to therapy, the possibility of carcinoma should be considered, particularly if associated with a loss of eyelashes.
Note (2): Isotretinoin used to treat cystic acne is associated with significant increase in colonization of conjunctiva with Staphylococcus aureus blepharitis and disruption of tear function. Discontinuation of isotretinoin leads to improvement in most cases.

Endophthalmitis, bacterial

  • Endogenous bacterial endophthalmitis
  • Empiric antimicrobial therapy[3]
  • Preferred regimen (intravitreal): Vancomycin 1 mg/0.1 mL normal saline AND (Ceftazidime 2.25 mg/0.1 mL OR Amikacin 0.4 mg/0.1 mL)
  • Preferred regimen (intravenous): antibiotic active against underlying source of bacteremia
Note (1): In conjunction with intravitreal and systemic antibiotic therapy, a vitrectomy is necessary in nearly all cases.
Note (2): Intravitreal antibiotics are given at the end of a vitrectomy case in the operating room, or as an office procedure without a vitrectomy.
Note (3): Endogenous bacterial endophthalmitis arises from bacteremic seeding associated with endocarditis, urinary tract infections, indwelling central venous catheters, illicit injection drug use, procedures (e.g., endoscopy), or liver abscess. Common pathogens include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus milleri group, group A and B streptococci, and Gram-negative bacilli (e.g., Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae).

Endophthalmitis, bleb-related

  • Empiric antimicrobial therapy[3]
Note (1): In conjunction with intravitreal antibiotic therapy, a vitrectomy is necessary in most cases.
Note (2): Intravitreal antibiotics are given at the end of a vitrectomy case in the operating room, or as an office procedure without a vitrectomy.
Note (3): It is reasonable to give an oral quinolone, such as Moxifloxacin, that achieves good vitreous levels and treats the major pathogens.

Endophthalmitis, candidal

  • Endogenous candida endophthalmitis[3]
  • Empiric therapy' [3]
Note (1): In conjunction with intravitreal and systemic antibiotic therapy, a vitrectomy is necessary if viritis (endophthalmitis) is present.
Note (2): often there is a need to remove artificial intra-ocular lense.
Note (3) : Systemic antibiotics alone are not effective in treating endophthalmitis, except for most cases of Candida chorioretinitis without vitritis. They are indicated in endogenous endophthalmitis and fungal endophthalmitis. Whether they are beneficial as adjunctive therapy in exogenous bacterial endophthalmitis is unknown.
  • Exogenous candida endophthalmitis
  • Empiric therapy
  • Preferred regimen (intraocular) : Amphotericin is 5-10 mcg in 0.1 mL of sterile water intravitreal OR Voriconazole is usually 100 mcg in 0.1 mL of sterile water intravitreal.
  • Preferred regimen (intravenous) : High-dose Fluconazole (400-800 mg qd assuming the normal kidney function) is also indicated for susceptible strains, OR Voriconazole for fluconazole-resistant but voriconazole-susceptible strains.
Note (1): Candida parapsilosis is the most common species, especially in postsurgical outbreaks.
Note (2): if infection follows cataract surgery, it is often necessary to remove the intra ocular lense as well.

Endophthalmitis, chronic

  • Chronic endophthalmitis [4]
  • Empiric therapy
  • Preferred regimen (intial therapy) : oral Clarithromycin 500 mg bid for 2-4 weeks.
Note : Consider adding oral Moxifloxacin (400 mg daily for a week) as it also has good intraocular penetration and a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity.

Endophthalmitis, mold

  • Exogenous mould endophthalmitis
  • Empiric therapy [3]
Note (1) : Unless the fungus is known, the initial intra-ocular injection should be amphotericin; subsequent injections may be voriconazole for sensitive fungi. Repeated intra-ocular injections of voriconazole (if the organism is susceptible) or amphotericin can be given, at least 48 hours apart.
Note (2) : In conjunction with intravitreal and systemic antibiotic therapy, a vitrectomy is necessary in nearly all cases.
Note (3) : Artificial intra-ocular lense needed to be removed.
  • Endogenous mould endophthalmitis
  • Empiric therapy
  • Preferred therapy (intravitreal) : Amphotericin intravitreal or voriconazole intravitreal
  • Preferred regimen (intravenous): In immunocompromised patients, treatment must include systemic antifungal therapy
Note (1): if the patient is able to tolerate surgery , vitrectomy and removal of any IOL, followed by intravitreal amphotericin or voriconazole should be performed.
Note (2): If too ill for surgery, the patient should have intravitreal injection of amphotericin or voriconazole, with repeated injections as needed.
Note (3): In injection drug users with no evidence of ongoing fungaemia, vitrectomy, intravitreal anti-fungal injection and systemic therapy should be given.

Endophthalmitis, post-cataract surgery, acute

  • Empiric therapy [3]
  • Preferred regimen (intravitreal):Vancomycin 1 mg/0.1 mL normal saline intravitreal AND Ceftazidime 2.25 mg/0.1 mL intravitreal
  • Preferred regimen (intravenous): rarely given
Note (1) : In conjunction with intravitreal antibiotic therapy, a vitrectomy is necessary if severe infection or fungal etiology
Note (2) : If there is no improvement in 48 h, a repeat intravitreal injection may be given with either vancomycin or ceftazidime, depending on culture results.
Note (3) : Repeated injections of amikacin are avoided, owing to concerns about retinal toxicity.
Note (4): No need to remove intra-ocular lense, unless fungal etiology.

Endophthalmitis, post-cataract surgery, chronic

  • Empiric therapy[3]
  • Preferred regimen (intravitreal): Vancomycin 1 mg/0.1 mL normal saline intravitreal
Note (1) : Artificial intra-ocular lense needed to be removed.
Note (2) : Most common pathogen causing post-cataract endophthalmitis is Propionibacterium acnes.
Note (3) : Necessity for vitrectomy is varied.

Endophthalmitis, post-tramatic

  • Empiric therapy[3]
  • Preferred regimen (intravitreal): Vancomycin 1 mg/0.1 mL normal saline intravitreal AND Ceftazidime 2.25 mg/0.1 mL intravitreal ( AND Amphotericin intravitreal if fungi suspected)
Note : intravitreal antibiotics are given at the end of a vitrectomy case in the operating room, or as an office procedure without a vitrectomy.
Note (1): Systemic antibiotics alone are not effective in treating endophthalmitis, except for most cases of Candida chorioretinitis without vitritis. They are indicated in endogenous endophthalmitis and fungal endophthalmitis. Whether they are beneficial as adjunctive therapy in exogenous bacterial endophthalmitis is unknown.
Note (2): In conjunction with intravitreal antibiotic therapy and intravenous antibiotic therapy , a vitrectomy is necessary in most cases.
Note (3): Need to remove artificial intra-ocular lens varies (always if fungal).
Note (4) : Treatment should be aggressive, with vitrectomy, intravitreal antibiotics (e.g. vancomycin plus ceftazidime), and systemic therapy.
Note (5) : Most common pathogens are Bacillus cereus, coagulase-negative staphylococci (fungi in some cases).

Keratitis, bacterial

  • Empiric therapy[5]
  • No organism identified (or) multiple types of organisms
Note (1) : Topical antibiotic eye drops are capable of achieving high tissue levels and are the preferred method of treatment in most cases.
Note (2) : Subconjunctival antibiotics may be helpful where there is imminent scleral spread or perforation or in cases where adherence to the treatment regimen is questionable.
Note (3) : Systemic therapy is necessary for suspected gonococcal infection.
  • Adjunctive therapy: ocular ointments may be useful at bedtime in less severe cases.
  • Organism specific bacterial keratitis
  • Gram positive cocci
Note: Vancomycin and gentamycin have no gram negative activity and should not be used as a single agent in empirically treating bacterial keratitis.
  • Gram negative bacilli
  • Gram negative cocci
  • Nontuberculous mycobacteria
  • Nocardia
  • Note (1) : Topical antibiotic eye drops are capable of achieving high tissue levels and are the preferred method of treatment in most cases.
  • Note (2) : Subconjunctival antibiotics may be helpful where there is imminent scleral spread or perforation or in cases where adherence to the treatment regimen is questionable.

Keratitis, fungal

  • Empiric therapy[6]
  • (1) Topical antifungals
  • (a) For filamentous fungi
(i) 1st line : 5% Natamycin
(ii) 2nd line : 1% Itraconazole
  • (b)For candida
(i) 1st line : 0.15% Amphotericin B
(ii) 2nd line : Fluconazole
  • (2) Oral antifungals
(i) Ketoconazole 200 mg bid
(ii) Itraconazole 200mg qd
(iii) Fluconazole 50-100 mg qd

Keratitis, protozoal

  • For Acanthamoeba
(i) Biguanide - (polyhexamethylene biguanide [PHMB] 0.02% or chlorhexidine 0.02%) and
(ii) diamidine - (propamidine 0.1% or hexamidine 0.1%)
  • Recommended
propamidine 0.1% + polyhexamethylene biguanide 0.02% OR propamidine + chlorhexidine.
polyhexamethylene biguanide 0.02% AND hexamidine drops are administered every hour day, and night, for 48 hours initially, followed by hourly drops by day only for a further 72 hours.
note (1) : Intensive early treatment is given because organisms may be more susceptible before cysts have fully matured. Epithelial toxicity is common if the dosage is maintained at this intensity.
Note (2) : the diamidines and biguanides are currently the most effective cysticidal antiamoebics in vitro .
  • Toxicity of Biguanides and Diamidines : Cataract, iris atrophy,and peripheral ulcerative keratitis are all complications of Acanthamoeba keratitis that have been attributed to the use of topical biguanides and/or diamidines.
  • For microsporidia
(i) debridement
(ii) broad-spectrum antibiotics OR polyhexamethylene biguanide [PHMB] OR chlorhexidine.
  • Treatment for Limbitis and Scleritis:
  • Oral NSAIDS treatment, such as furbiprofen 50 to 100 mg, bid or tid. If it does not respond to flurbiprofen, then high-dose systemic steroid therapy prednisolone 1 mg/kg/day), with systemic Cyclosporine (3 to 7.5 mg/kg/day), can be used for successful control.

Keratitis, viral

  • Empiric therapy[6]
  • (a) HSV keratitis
  • (1) For epithelial disease:
(i) Acyclovir 3% ointment 5 times a day (is able to penetrate intact corneal epithelium)
(ii) Idoxuridine 0.1% drops now seldom used toxicity
(iii) Debridement in dendritic ulcer
  • (2) For necrotizing stromal disease:
Oral Acyclovir AND topical corticosteroids.
  • (3) For nonnecrotizing stromal disease
Topical corticosteroids when lesion involves visual axis.Possibly oral acyclovir (debatable)

Ocular syphilis

  • Empiric therapy[8]
  • Preferred regimen (1) : Penicillin intravenous (4 million units every 4 hours,assuming normal renal function) for 10 to 14 days. Intravenous penicillin with injections of 2.4 million units of intra muscular benzathine penicillin, once weekly for 3 weeks.
  • Preferred regimen (2) : Systemic corticosteroids (e.g., oral Prednisone , 60 to 80 mg qd ) should be started along with the antibiotic therapy and then tapered over days to weeks.
Note (1) : Corticosteroids are given to decrease intra-ocular inflammation and prevent rebound inflammation from Jarisch Herxheimer reaction.
Note (2) : All patients with presumed ocular syphilis should be tested for HIV, and all should have a lumbar puncture before starting therapy to exclude concurrent neurosyphilis.
Note (3) : If there is evidence of neurosyphilis, antibiotic treatment is the same, but a follow-up lumbar puncture at 6 months is necessary to document resolution of infection.

Ocular toxocariasis

  • Ocular larval migrans [9]
  • Preferred regimen: Albendazole 400 mg bd for 5 days
  • Alternative regimen: Mebendazole (some success has been reported in patients who ingest 1 g or more for a 21-day course)
Note (1): Symptomatic treatment, including administration of corticosteroids, has been helpful for suppressing the intense allergic manifestations of the infection.
Note (2): Ocular larval migrans is treated by surgery (vitrectomy), antihelminthic chemotherapy, AND / OR corticosteroids.

Ocular toxoplasmosis

  • Ocular toxoplasmosis [10]
  • Preferred regimen (Active chorioretinitis; meningitis; lowered resistance due to steroids or cytotoxic drugs) : (Pyrimethamine (pyri) 200 mg po once on 1st day, then 50-75 mg q24hours ) + ( Sulfadiazine 1-1.5 gm po qid ) + ( Leucovorin (Folinic acid) 5-20 mg 3times/week].
Note (1): Treat 1-2 week beyond resolution of signs/symptoms; continue leucovorin 1 week after stopping pyrimethamine.
Note (2): For congenital toxoplasmosis, toxoplasma meningitis in adults, chorioretinitis, add Prednisone 1 mg/kg/day in 2 divided doses until CSF protein concentration falls or vision-threatening inflammation subsides.
Note (3):Adjust folinic acid dose by following CBC results.

Ocular tuberculosis

  • Intensive phase (adult)
  • Preferred regimen: Isoniazid 5 mg/kg (max: 300 mg) for 2 months AND Rifampin 10 mg/kg (max: 600 mg) for 2 months AND Pyrazinamide 15–30 mg/kg (max: 2 g) for 2 months AND Ethambutol 15–20 mg/kg (max: 1 g) for 2 months
  • Continuation phase (adult)
  • Preferred regimen: Isoniazid 5 mg/kg (max: 300 mg) for 4 months AND Rifampin 10 mg/kg (max: 600 mg) for 4 months
  • Intensive phase (pediatric)
  • Preferred regimen: Isoniazid 10–15 mg/kg (max: 300 mg) for 2 months AND Rifampin 10–20 mg/kg (max: 600 mg) for 2 months AND Pyrazinamide 15–30 mg/kg (max: 2 g) for 2 months AND Ethambutol 15–20 mg/kg (max: 1 g) for 2 months
  • Continuation phase (pediatric)
  • Preferred regimen: Isoniazid 10–15 mg/kg (max: 300 mg) for 4 months AND Rifampin 10–20 mg/kg (max: 600 mg) for 4 months
Note (1): Ethambutol should be avoided if possible because of potential ocular toxicity.[13]
Note (2): A short course of systemic corticosteroids may be necessary initially if there is sight-threatening inflammation.

Orbital cellulitis

Periocular Infection

Retinal necrosis, acute, CMV

  • Cytomegalovirus, actue retinal necrosis [14]
  • Preferred regimen: Ganciclovir intravenous if cytomegalovirus is a possibility,OR Foscarnet intravenous even if the patient is not known to be immunocompromised.

Retinal necrosis, acute, HSV or VZV

  • Herpes simplex or varicella zoster , acute retinal necrosis[15]
  • Preferred regimen (Acute retinal necrosis due to herpes simplex virus-Varicella zoster )  : high-dose Acyclovir intravenous (10 mg/kg every 8 hours with normal renal function) for 1 to 2 weeks followed by Valacyclovir OR Famciclovir for 6 weeks to several months.
Note (1): For severe cases, acyclovir intravenous for 1 to 2 weeks followed by valacyclovir 1 g every 8 hours for several weeks is appropriate, followed by a slow taper to chronic acyclovir maintenance therapy 400 mg PO twice daily.
Note (2): The goal of initial therapy in acute retinal necrosisis to halt progression of retinitis and prevent involvement of the other eye.
Note (3): If the retinitis is progressing despite acyclovir intravenous then additional therapies such as foscarnet intravitreal (1.2 to 2.4 mg/0.1 mL) injections and empirical switch to Ganciclovir if cytomegalovirus is a possibility, OR Foscarnet intravenous even if the patient is not known to be immunocompromised.
Note (4): In immunocompetent hosts that progressed despite acyclovir intravenous have responded to combination therapy with (ganciclovir intravitreal OR foscarnet injections) AND (ganciclovir OR foscarnet, OR cidofovir) systemic.
Note (5): Long-term prophylactic oral acyclovir (400 mg qd) seems to be beneficial in preventing recurrences of herpetic stromal keratitis and anterior uveitis.
Note (6): Repeated intravitreal injections may be required to halt progression of retinitis. Intravitreal foscarnet may reduce the rate of retinal detachment, a common complication of acute retinal necrosis , particularly Varicella zoster acute retinal necrosis.
Note (7): For any type of acute retinal necrosis, retinitis may occur in the second eye several months after onset of acute retinal necrosis in the first eye, oral antiviral therapy (e.g., acyclovir,valacyclovir, famciclovir) usually should be continued for several months following initial intravenous therapy.
Note (8): Varicella zoster acute retinal necrosis tends to be more severe and progress more rapidly than herpes simplex virus acute retinal necrosis.

Retinal necrosis, progressive outer, VZV

  • Progressive outer retinal necrosis, varicella zoster [16]
  • Preferred regimen: Foscarnet intravitreal injections and Ganciclovir intravitreal injections, in addition to prolonged combination intravenous therapy with these agents and the initiation of anti retroviral therapy in HIV-positive patients.
Note (1) : With bilateral progressive outer retinal necrosis, vision was lost in one eye, but an aggressive treatment led to visual recovery in the other eye.
Note (2): Foscarnet intravenous and ganciclovir intravenous for 7 months and concurrent foscarnet 1.2 mg/0.05 mL intravitreal injections nearly twice-weekly and ganciclovir 2 mg/0.05 mL intravitreal injections nearly twice-weekly.
Note (3): Anti retroviral therapy was also initiated, and anti-varicella zoster virus therapy was stopped when CD4+ T-cell count rose to 100/mm3.

Retinitis, CMV

  • Cytomegalovirus retinitis[17]
  • Preferred regimen (Initial therapy) : Ganciclovir at a dose of 7.5 to 15 mg/kg/day intravenous for 3 weeks in 3 divided doses for 14 to 21 days, followed by a maintenance regimen.
  • Preferred regimen (Maintenance therapy) : ganciclovir 5 to 6 mg/kg/day intravenous for 5 to 7 days per week to prevent relapse.
  • Alternative regimen (1): Oral ganciclovir,despite its low oral bioavailability (8%), administered at a dose of 1000 mg taken tid, was found to be nearly equivalent to ganciclovir intravenous in prevention of progression and preservation of vision, particularly if the initial cytomegalovirus retinitis was not sight threatening.
  • Alternative regimen (2): Valganciclovir has supplanted oral ganciclovir for the treatment of cytomegalovirus infection. Valganciclovir is given as an induction regimen of 900 mg orally qd for 21 days, and then as a maintenance dose of 900 mg/day.

Stye

  • Hordeolum
  • Preferred regimen (external hordeolum, for a single lesion): application of warm compresses 4-6 times/day.
Note: Antibiotic therapy is questionable value for a single lesion and often not indicated.
  • Preferred regimen (external hordeolum, for multiple/recurrent lesions): antistaphylococcal antibiotic therapy in the form of Bacitracin topical 1-3 times/day OR Erythromycin topical ointment up to 6 times/day, along with lid hygiene.
Note : Depending on the severity,systemic antistaphylococcal antibiotics may be required.
  • Preferred regimen (internal hordeolum) : warm compressess in conjugation with systemic antistaphylococcal antibiotics
Note (1): If the lesion do not respond to this regimen, incision and drainage are indicated.
Note (2): Chalazion effectively treated with lid hygiene and warm compression in most circumstances.

Uveitis, acute anterior

  • Acute anterior uveitis [18]
  • Preferred regimen (1): Acute anterior uveitis due to herpes is treated with Corticosteroids topical AND Acyclovir 400 mg PO five times daily.
  • Preferred regimen (2): Long-term prophylactic oral acyclovir (400 mg bd) seems to be beneficial in preventing recurrences of herpetic stromal keratitis and anterior uveitis.

Uveitis, Lyme disease

  • Lyme uveitis

References

  1. Azari, Amir A.; Barney, Neal P. (2013-10-23). "Conjunctivitis: a systematic review of diagnosis and treatment". JAMA. 310 (16): 1721–1729. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.280318. ISSN 1538-3598. PMC 4049531. PMID 24150468.
  2. "Blepharitis PPP 2013".
  3. 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Durand ML (2013). "Endophthalmitis". Clin Microbiol Infect. 19 (3): 227–34. doi:10.1111/1469-0691.12118. PMC 3638360. PMID 23438028.
  4. [www.escrs.org/downloads/endophthalmitis-guidelines.pdf "Endophthalmitis"] Check |url= value (help) (PDF).
  5. "= bacterial keratitis ppp 2013".
  6. 6.0 6.1 6.2 Thomas PA, Geraldine P (2007). "Infectious keratitis". Curr Opin Infect Dis. 20 (2): 129–41. doi:10.1097/QCO.0b013e328017f878. PMID 17496570.
  7. Dart JK, Saw VP, Kilvington S (2009). "Acanthamoeba keratitis: diagnosis and treatment update 2009". Am J Ophthalmol. 148 (4): 487–499.e2. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2009.06.009. PMID 19660733.
  8. Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  9. Despommier D (2003). "Toxocariasis: clinical aspects, epidemiology, medical ecology, and molecular aspects". Clin Microbiol Rev. 16 (2): 265–72. PMC 153144. PMID 12692098.
  10. Montoya JG, Liesenfeld O (2004). "Toxoplasmosis". Lancet. 363 (9425): 1965–76. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16412-X. PMID 15194258.
  11. Blumberg, Henry M.; Burman, William J.; Chaisson, Richard E.; Daley, Charles L.; Etkind, Sue C.; Friedman, Lloyd N.; Fujiwara, Paula; Grzemska, Malgosia; Hopewell, Philip C.; Iseman, Michael D.; Jasmer, Robert M.; Koppaka, Venkatarama; Menzies, Richard I.; O'Brien, Richard J.; Reves, Randall R.; Reichman, Lee B.; Simone, Patricia M.; Starke, Jeffrey R.; Vernon, Andrew A.; American Thoracic Society, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Infectious Diseases Society (2003-02-15). "American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Infectious Diseases Society of America: treatment of tuberculosis". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 167 (4): 603–662. doi:10.1164/rccm.167.4.603. ISSN 1073-449X. PMID 12588714.
  12. American Thoracic Society; CDC; Infectious Diseases Society of America (2003-06-20). "Treatment of tuberculosis". MMWR. Recommendations and reports: Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control. 52 (RR-11): 1–77. ISSN 1057-5987. PMID 12836625.
  13. Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  14. Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  15. Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  16. Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  17. Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.
  18. Bennett, John (2015). Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 978-1455748013.