Aortic dissection causes: Difference between revisions

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==Overview==
==Overview==
[[Atherosclerosis]] and [[hypertension]] are associated with spontaneous dissection, while blunt trauma injury and sudden deceleration in a [[motor vehicle accident]] is a major cause of traumatic [[aortic]] dissection.
[[Atherosclerosis]] and [[hypertension]] are associated with spontaneous aortic dissection, while [[blunt trauma]] and [[whiplash (medicine)|sudden deceleration]] in a [[motor vehicle accident]] are major causes of traumatic [[aortic]] dissection.
 
==Causes==
==Causes==
===Common Causes===
===Common Causes===
The most common causes of aortic dissection include:<ref name="pmid25805614">{{cite journal |vauthors=Penn JL, Martindale JL, Milne LW, Marill KA |title=Aortic dissection associated with blunt chest trauma diagnosed by elevated D-dimer |journal=Int J Surg Case Rep |volume=10 |issue= |pages=76–9 |date=2015 |pmid=25805614 |pmc=4429846 |doi=10.1016/j.ijscr.2015.03.027 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15121626">{{cite journal| author=Weissmann-Brenner A, Schoen R, Divon MY| title=Aortic dissection in pregnancy. | journal=Obstet Gynecol | year= 2004 | volume= 103 | issue= 5 Pt 2 | pages= 1110-3 | pmid=15121626 | doi=10.1097/01.AOG.0000124984.82336.43 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15121626  }} </ref><ref name="pmid22829842">{{cite journal| author=Brooke V, Goswami S, Mohanty A, Kasi PM| title=Aortic dissection and renal failure in a patient with severe hypothyroidism. | journal=Case Rep Med | year= 2012 | volume= 2012 | issue=  | pages= 842562 | pmid=22829842 | doi=10.1155/2012/842562 | pmc=PMC3399550 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22829842  }} </ref><ref name="pmid2062514">{{cite journal| author=| title=Classification of diabetic retinopathy from fluorescein angiograms. ETDRS report number 11. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. | journal=Ophthalmology | year= 1991 | volume= 98 | issue= 5 Suppl | pages= 807-22 | pmid=2062514 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2062514  }} </ref><ref name="pmid23401778">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cury M, Zeidan F, Lobato AC |title=Aortic disease in the young: genetic aneurysm syndromes, connective tissue disorders, and familial aortic aneurysms and dissections |journal=Int J Vasc Med |volume=2013 |issue= |pages=267215 |date=2013 |pmid=23401778 |pmc=3557640 |doi=10.1155/2013/267215 |url=}}</ref>
*[[Atherosclerosis]]
*[[Atherosclerosis]]
*[[Iatrogenic|Cardiac procedures related]]
*[[Chest trauma]]
*[[Chest trauma]]
*[[Chronic hypertension]]
*[[Iatrogenic|Complication of cardiac procedures]]
*[[Connective tissue disorders]]
*[[Connective tissue disorders]]
*[[Hypertension]]
*[[Vasculitis]]
*[[Vasculitis]]<ref name="pmid2062514">{{cite journal| author=| title=Classification of diabetic retinopathy from fluorescein angiograms. ETDRS report number 11. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. | journal=Ophthalmology | year= 1991 | volume= 98 | issue= 5 Suppl | pages= 807-22 | pmid=2062514 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2062514  }} </ref>
 
===Causes by Organ System===
===Causes by Organ System===
*Causes of aortic dissection include:<ref name="LarsonEdwards1984">{{cite journal|last1=Larson|first1=Eric W.|last2=Edwards|first2=William D.|title=Risk factors for aortic dissection: A necropsy study of 161 cases|journal=The American Journal of Cardiology|volume=53|issue=6|year=1984|pages=849–855|issn=00029149|doi=10.1016/0002-9149(84)90418-1}}</ref><ref name="JanuzziIsselbacher2004">{{cite journal|last1=Januzzi|first1=James L|last2=Isselbacher|first2=Eric M|last3=Fattori|first3=Rossella|last4=Cooper|first4=Jeanna V|last5=Smith|first5=Dean E|last6=Fang|first6=Jianming|last7=Eagle|first7=Kim A|last8=Mehta|first8=Rajendra H|last9=Nienaber|first9=Christoph A|last10=Pape|first10=Linda A|title=Characterizing the young patient with aortic dissection: results from the international registry of aortic dissection (IRAD)|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology|volume=43|issue=4|year=2004|pages=665–669|issn=07351097|doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2003.08.054}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Correspondence|journal=The Annals of Thoracic Surgery|volume=67|issue=2|year=1999|pages=593|issn=00034975|doi=10.1016/S0003-4975(99)00037-5}}</ref><ref name="LosennoGoodman2012">{{cite journal|last1=Losenno|first1=Katie L.|last2=Goodman|first2=Robert L.|last3=Chu|first3=Michael W. A.|title=Bicuspid Aortic Valve Disease and Ascending Aortic Aneurysms: Gaps in Knowledge|journal=Cardiology Research and Practice|volume=2012|year=2012|pages=1–16|issn=2090-8016|doi=10.1155/2012/145202}}</ref><ref name="pmid25743550">{{cite journal |vauthors=Senaha S, Uezu T, Shimoji M, Akasaki M |title=[Stanford type B aortic dissection associated with coarctation of the aorta] |language=Japanese |journal=Kyobu Geka |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=184–7 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25743550 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7826227">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dioguardi GS, Pimenta J, Knoplich J, Ghorayeb N, Ramos LR, Giannini SD |title=[Risk factors for cardiovascular diseases in physicians. Preliminary data from the VIDAM Project of the Paulista Medical Association] |language=Portuguese |journal=Arq. Bras. Cardiol. |volume=62 |issue=6 |pages=383–8 |date=June 1994 |pmid=7826227 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="CaglayanDundar2009">{{cite journal|last1=Caglayan|first1=Ahmet Okay|last2=Dundar|first2=Munis|title=Inherited diseases and syndromes leading to aortic aneurysms and dissections|journal=European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery|volume=35|issue=6|year=2009|pages=931–940|issn=10107940|doi=10.1016/j.ejcts.2009.01.006}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Acute aortic dissection: pathogenesis, risk factors and diagnosis|journal=Swiss Medical Weekly|volume=147|issue=3334|year=2017|issn=1424-7860|doi=10.4414/smw.2017.14489}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=PubMed&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=17055808&ordinalpos=2&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum Increased maternal cardiovascular mortality associated with pregnancy in women with Turner syndrome.]</ref>
{|style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
{|style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | '''Cardiovascular'''
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | '''Cardiovascular'''
|style="height:100px"; style="width:75%" border="1" bgcolor="Beige" | [[Atherosclerosis]], [[bicuspid aortic valve]], [[hypertension]], [[malignant hypertension]], [[vasculitis]]
|style="height:100px"; style="width:75%" border="1" bgcolor="Beige" | [[Atherosclerosis]], [[bicuspid aortic valve]], [[hypertension]], [[malignant hypertension]], [[aberrant subclavian artery|ruptured aortic arch with aberrant left subclavian artery]], [[seat belt aorta]], [[vasculitis]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
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|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
| '''Genetic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Loeys-Dietz syndrome|Aneurysms osteoarthritis syndrome]], [[annuloaortic ectasia]], [[bicuspid aortic valve]], [[Ehlers-Danlos syndrome]], [[Erdheim's cystic medial necrosis]], [[familial aortic dissection]], [[fibromuscular dysplasia]], [[Loeys-Dietz syndrome]], [[Marfan syndrome]], [[Loeys-Dietz syndrome|mutation of TGF-β receptor genes]], [[Familial aortic dissection|mutations in genes encoding α-actin and β-myosin]], [[Loeys-Dietz syndrome|mutations in SMAD3]], [[Ehlers-Danlos syndrome|mutations in the gene encoding filamin A]], [[Noonan syndrome]], [[osteogenesis imperfecta]], [[pseudoxanthoma elasticum]], [[Turner syndrome]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Loeys-Dietz syndrome|Aneurysms osteoarthritis syndrome]], [[annuloaortic ectasia]], [[bicuspid aortic valve]], [[Ehlers-Danlos syndrome]], [[Erdheim's cystic medial necrosis]], [[familial aortic dissection]], [[fibromuscular dysplasia]], [[Loeys-Dietz syndrome]], [[Marfan syndrome]], [[Loeys-Dietz syndrome|mutation of TGF-β receptor genes]], [[Familial aortic dissection|mutations in genes encoding α-actin and β-myosin]], [[Loeys-Dietz syndrome|mutations in SMAD3]], [[Ehlers-Danlos syndrome|mutations in the gene encoding filamin A]], [[Noonan syndrome]], [[osteogenesis imperfecta]], [[pseudoxanthoma elasticum]], [[Turner syndrome]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
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|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
| '''Iatrogenic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Aortic stenosis valvuloplasty#Complications|Aortic valve replacement surgery]], [[cardiac catheterization]], [[coronary artery bypass graft surgery]], [[Stent|following implantation of stent graft]], [[Intra-aortic balloon pump#Monitoring for Complications|following use of intra-aortic balloon pump]], [[Mitral valve replacement#Postoperative Complications/ Risks|mitral valve replacement surgery]], [[Aortic coarctation surgery#Surgical Complications|surgical correction of aortic coarctation]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Aortic valve replacement|Aortic valve replacement surgery]], [[cardiac catheterization]], [[coronary artery bypass graft surgery]], [[Stent#Stent Graft|implantation of stent graft]], [[Intra-aortic balloon pump#Monitoring for Complications|intra-aortic balloon pump]], [[mitral valve replacement#Postoperative Complications/Risks|mitral valve replacement surgery]], [[aortic coarctation surgery#Surgical Complications|surgical correction of aortic coarctation]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
| '''Infectious Disease'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Annuloaortic ectasia]], [[aortitis]], [[HIV]], [[syphilitic aortitis]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[HIV AIDS natural history, complications, and prognosis|AIDS]], [[annuloaortic ectasia]], [[aortitis]], [[syphilitic aortitis]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
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|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy'''
| '''Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Aortitis]], [[arteritis]], [[Behçet's disease]], [[giant cell arteritis]], [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[scleroderma]], [[systemic lupus erythematosus]], [[Takayasu arteritis]], [[vasculitis]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Aortitis]], [[arteritis]], [[Behçet's disease]], [[giant cell arteritis]], [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[scleroderma]], [[systemic lupus erythematosus]], [[Takayasu arteritis]], [[vasculitis]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
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|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
| '''Trauma'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Chest trauma]], [[Whiplash (medicine)|deceleration injuries]], [[motor vehicle accident]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Chest trauma]], [[Whiplash (medicine)|deceleration injuries]], [[motor vehicle accident]], [[seat belt aorta]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
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|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
| '''Miscellaneous'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Connective tissue disorders]], [[exercise|heavy exercise]], [[idiopathic]]
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Connective tissue disorders]], [[exercise|heavy exercise]], [[idiopathic]]
|-
|-
|}
|}
 
*For more information on potential [[risk factors]] for the development of aortic dissection [[Aortic dissection risk factors|click here]].
===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
{{col-begin|width=80%}}
{{col-break|width=33%}}
*[[Atherosclerosis]]
*[[Loeys-Dietz syndrome|Aneurysms osteoarthritis syndrome]]
*[[Annuloaortic ectasia]]
*[[Aortic stenosis valvuloplasty#Complications|Aortic valve replacement surgery]]<ref name="Mohr-1998">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Mohr | first1 = FW. | last2 = Falk | first2 = V. | last3 = Diegeler | first3 = A. | last4 = Walther | first4 = T. | last5 = van Son | first5 = JA. | last6 = Autschbach | first6 = R. | title = Minimally invasive port-access mitral valve surgery. | journal = J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg | volume = 115 | issue = 3 | pages = 567-74; discussion 574-6 | month = Mar | year = 1998 | doi =  | PMID = 9535444 }}</ref>
*[[Aortitis]]
*[[Arteritis]]
*[[Behçet's disease]]
*[[Bicuspid aortic valve]]
*[[Cardiac catheterization]]
*[[Chest trauma]]
*[[Cocaine abuse]]
*[[Connective tissue disorders]]
*[[Coronary artery bypass graft surgery]]
*[[Cushing's syndrome]]
*[[Whiplash (medicine)|Deceleration injuries]]
*[[Ehlers-Danlos syndrome]]
*[[Erdheim's cystic medial necrosis]]
*[[Familial aortic dissection]]<ref name="Arbustini-2012">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Arbustini | first1 = E. | last2 = Narula | first2 = N. | title = Extra-aortic identifiers to guide genetic testing in familial thoracic aortic aneurysms and dissections syndromes: it is all about the company one keeps. | journal = J Am Coll Cardiol | volume = 60 | issue = 5 | pages = 404-7 | month = Jul | year = 2012 | doi = 10.1016/j.jacc.2012.03.032 | PMID = 22633652 }}</ref>
{{col-break|width=33%}}
*[[Fibromuscular dysplasia]]
*[[Stent|Following implantation of stent graft]]<ref name="Angouras-2002">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Angouras | first1 = DC. | last2 = Michler | first2 = RE. | title = An alternative surgical approach to facilitate minimally invasive mitral valve surgery. | journal = Ann Thorac Surg | volume = 73 | issue = 2 | pages = 673-4 | month = Feb | year = 2002 | doi =  | PMID = 11845906 }}</ref>
*[[Intra-aortic balloon pump#Monitoring for Complications|Following use of intra-aortic balloon pump]]
*[[Giant cell arteritis]]
*[[Exercise|Heavy exercise]]
*[[HIV]]<ref name="Shen-2012">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Shen | first1 = YZ. | last2 = Song | first2 = W. | last3 = Lu | first3 = HZ. | title = Type I aortic dissection in a patient with human immunodeficiency virus infection. | journal = Biosci Trends | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | pages = 143-6 | month = Jun | year = 2012 | doi =  | PMID = 22890163 }}</ref>
*[[Homocystinuria]]
*[[Hypertension]]
*[[Idiopathic]]
*[[Loeys-Dietz syndrome]]
*[[Malignant hypertension]]
*[[Marfan syndrome]]
*[[Methonium]]<ref name="-1956">{{Cite journal  | title = GANGLION-BLOCKING drugs and dissection of the aorta. | journal = Br Med J | volume = 1 | issue = 4981 | pages = 1473-4 | month = Jun | year = 1956 | doi =  | PMID = 13316190 }}</ref>
*[[Mitral valve replacement#Postoperative Complications/ Risks|Mitral valve replacement surgery]]
*[[Motor vehicle accident]]
*[[Loeys-Dietz syndrome|Mutation of TGF-β receptor genes]]<ref name="Choi-2012">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Choi | first1 = JC. | last2 = LeMaire | first2 = SA. | title = Thoracic aortic dissection: genes, molecules, and the knife. | journal = Tex Heart Inst J | volume = 39 | issue = 6 | pages = 838-9 | month =  | year = 2012 | doi =  | PMID = 23304027 }}</ref>
{{col-break|width=33%}}
*[[Familial aortic dissection|Mutations in genes encoding α-actin and β-myosin]]<ref name="Choi-2012">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Choi | first1 = JC. | last2 = LeMaire | first2 = SA. | title = Thoracic aortic dissection: genes, molecules, and the knife. | journal = Tex Heart Inst J | volume = 39 | issue = 6 | pages = 838-9 | month =  | year = 2012 | doi =  | PMID = 23304027 }}</ref>
*[[Loeys-Dietz syndrome|Mutations in SMAD3]]<ref name="Choi-2012">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Choi | first1 = JC. | last2 = LeMaire | first2 = SA. | title = Thoracic aortic dissection: genes, molecules, and the knife. | journal = Tex Heart Inst J | volume = 39 | issue = 6 | pages = 838-9 | month =  | year = 2012 | doi =  | PMID = 23304027 }}</ref>
*[[Ehlers-Danlos syndrome|Mutations in the gene encoding filamin A]]<ref name="Choi-2012">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Choi | first1 = JC. | last2 = LeMaire | first2 = SA. | title = Thoracic aortic dissection: genes, molecules, and the knife. | journal = Tex Heart Inst J | volume = 39 | issue = 6 | pages = 838-9 | month =  | year = 2012 | doi =  | PMID = 23304027 }}</ref>
*[[Noonan syndrome]]
*[[Osteogenesis imperfecta]]
*[[Polycystic kidney disease]]<ref name="Gignon-2011">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Gignon | first1 = M. | last2 = Defouilloy | first2 = C. | last3 = Montpellier | first3 = D. | last4 = Chatelain | first4 = D. | last5 = Traulle | first5 = S. | last6 = Ammirati | first6 = C. | last7 = Jarde | first7 = O. | last8 = Manaouil | first8 = C. | title = Sudden death caused by aortic dissection in a patient with polycystic kidney disease. | journal = Genet Couns | volume = 22 | issue = 4 | pages = 333-9 | month =  | year = 2011 | doi =  | PMID = 22303792 }}</ref>
*[[Pseudoxanthoma elasticum]]
*[[Rheumatoid arthritis]]
*[[Scleroderma]]
*[[Aortic coarctation surgery#Surgical Complications|Surgical correction of aortic coarctation]]
*[[Syphilitic aortitis]]
*[[Systemic lupus erythematosus]]
*[[Takayasu arteritis]]
*[[Turner syndrome]]
*[[Vasculitis]]
{{col-end}}
 
== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}


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[[Category:Emergency medicine]]
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Latest revision as of 20:58, 12 December 2019

Aortic dissection Microchapters

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Patient Information

Overview

Historical Perspective

Classification

Pathophysiology

Causes

Differentiating Aortic dissection from other Diseases

Epidemiology and Demographics

Risk Factors

Screening

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Study of Choice

History and Symptoms

Physical Examination

Laboratory Findings

Electrocardiogram

X-ray

Echocardiography and Ultrasound

CT scan

MRI

Other Imaging Findings

Other Diagnostic Studies

Treatment

Medical Therapy

Surgery

Primary Prevention

Secondary Prevention

Special Scenarios

Management during Pregnancy

Case Studies

Case #1


Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Vendhan Ramanujam M.B.B.S [2] Sahar Memar Montazerin, M.D.[3]

Overview

Atherosclerosis and hypertension are associated with spontaneous aortic dissection, while blunt trauma and sudden deceleration in a motor vehicle accident are major causes of traumatic aortic dissection.

Causes

Common Causes

The most common causes of aortic dissection include:[1][2][3][4][5]

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular Atherosclerosis, bicuspid aortic valve, hypertension, malignant hypertension, ruptured aortic arch with aberrant left subclavian artery, seat belt aorta, vasculitis
Chemical/Poisoning No underlying causes
Dental No underlying causes
Dermatologic No underlying causes
Drug Side Effect Methonium
Ear Nose Throat No underlying causes
Endocrine Cushing's syndrome
Environmental No underlying causes
Gastroenterologic No underlying causes
Genetic Aneurysms osteoarthritis syndrome, annuloaortic ectasia, bicuspid aortic valve, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, Erdheim's cystic medial necrosis, familial aortic dissection, fibromuscular dysplasia, Loeys-Dietz syndrome, Marfan syndrome, mutation of TGF-β receptor genes, mutations in genes encoding α-actin and β-myosin, mutations in SMAD3, mutations in the gene encoding filamin A, Noonan syndrome, osteogenesis imperfecta, pseudoxanthoma elasticum, Turner syndrome
Hematologic No underlying causes
Iatrogenic Aortic valve replacement surgery, cardiac catheterization, coronary artery bypass graft surgery, implantation of stent graft, intra-aortic balloon pump, mitral valve replacement surgery, surgical correction of aortic coarctation
Infectious Disease AIDS, annuloaortic ectasia, aortitis, syphilitic aortitis
Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, osteogenesis imperfecta
Neurologic No underlying causes
Nutritional/Metabolic Homocystinuria
Obstetric/Gynecologic No underlying causes
Oncologic No underlying causes
Ophthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose/Toxicity Cocaine abuse
Psychiatric No underlying causes
Pulmonary No underlying causes
Renal/Electrolyte Polycystic kidney disease
Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy Aortitis, arteritis, Behçet's disease, giant cell arteritis, rheumatoid arthritis, scleroderma, systemic lupus erythematosus, Takayasu arteritis, vasculitis
Sexual No underlying causes
Trauma Chest trauma, deceleration injuries, motor vehicle accident, seat belt aorta
Urologic No underlying causes
Miscellaneous Connective tissue disorders, heavy exercise, idiopathic

References

  1. ↑ Penn JL, Martindale JL, Milne LW, Marill KA (2015). "Aortic dissection associated with blunt chest trauma diagnosed by elevated D-dimer". Int J Surg Case Rep. 10: 76–9. doi:10.1016/j.ijscr.2015.03.027. PMC 4429846. PMID 25805614.
  2. ↑ Weissmann-Brenner A, Schoen R, Divon MY (2004). "Aortic dissection in pregnancy". Obstet Gynecol. 103 (5 Pt 2): 1110–3. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000124984.82336.43. PMID 15121626.
  3. ↑ Brooke V, Goswami S, Mohanty A, Kasi PM (2012). "Aortic dissection and renal failure in a patient with severe hypothyroidism". Case Rep Med. 2012: 842562. doi:10.1155/2012/842562. PMC 3399550. PMID 22829842.
  4. ↑ "Classification of diabetic retinopathy from fluorescein angiograms. ETDRS report number 11. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group". Ophthalmology. 98 (5 Suppl): 807–22. 1991. PMID 2062514.
  5. ↑ Cury M, Zeidan F, Lobato AC (2013). "Aortic disease in the young: genetic aneurysm syndromes, connective tissue disorders, and familial aortic aneurysms and dissections". Int J Vasc Med. 2013: 267215. doi:10.1155/2013/267215. PMC 3557640. PMID 23401778.
  6. ↑ Larson, Eric W.; Edwards, William D. (1984). "Risk factors for aortic dissection: A necropsy study of 161 cases". The American Journal of Cardiology. 53 (6): 849–855. doi:10.1016/0002-9149(84)90418-1. ISSN 0002-9149.
  7. ↑ Januzzi, James L; Isselbacher, Eric M; Fattori, Rossella; Cooper, Jeanna V; Smith, Dean E; Fang, Jianming; Eagle, Kim A; Mehta, Rajendra H; Nienaber, Christoph A; Pape, Linda A (2004). "Characterizing the young patient with aortic dissection: results from the international registry of aortic dissection (IRAD)". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 43 (4): 665–669. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2003.08.054. ISSN 0735-1097.
  8. ↑ "Correspondence". The Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 67 (2): 593. 1999. doi:10.1016/S0003-4975(99)00037-5. ISSN 0003-4975.
  9. ↑ Losenno, Katie L.; Goodman, Robert L.; Chu, Michael W. A. (2012). "Bicuspid Aortic Valve Disease and Ascending Aortic Aneurysms: Gaps in Knowledge". Cardiology Research and Practice. 2012: 1–16. doi:10.1155/2012/145202. ISSN 2090-8016.
  10. ↑ Senaha S, Uezu T, Shimoji M, Akasaki M (March 2015). "[Stanford type B aortic dissection associated with coarctation of the aorta]". Kyobu Geka (in Japanese). 68 (3): 184–7. PMID 25743550.
  11. ↑ Dioguardi GS, Pimenta J, Knoplich J, Ghorayeb N, Ramos LR, Giannini SD (June 1994). "[Risk factors for cardiovascular diseases in physicians. Preliminary data from the VIDAM Project of the Paulista Medical Association]". Arq. Bras. Cardiol. (in Portuguese). 62 (6): 383–8. PMID 7826227.
  12. ↑ Caglayan, Ahmet Okay; Dundar, Munis (2009). "Inherited diseases and syndromes leading to aortic aneurysms and dissections". European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery. 35 (6): 931–940. doi:10.1016/j.ejcts.2009.01.006. ISSN 1010-7940.
  13. ↑ "Acute aortic dissection: pathogenesis, risk factors and diagnosis". Swiss Medical Weekly. 147 (3334). 2017. doi:10.4414/smw.2017.14489. ISSN 1424-7860.
  14. ↑ Increased maternal cardiovascular mortality associated with pregnancy in women with Turner syndrome.

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