Foodborne illness causes: Difference between revisions

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===Bacteria===
===Bacteria===
[[Bacteria]] are a common cause of foodborne illness.
[[Bacteria]] are a common cause of foodborne illness.
'''Most common''' bacterial foodborne pathogens are:
'''Most common''' bacterial foodborne pathogens are:
*''[[Campylobacter|Campylobacter jejuni]]''
*''[[Campylobacter|Campylobacter jejuni]]''
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*''[[Plesiomonas shigelloides]]''
*''[[Plesiomonas shigelloides]]''
====Exotoxins====
====Exotoxins====
In addition to disease caused by direct bacterial infection, some foodborne illnesses are caused by [[exotoxin]]s which are [[excretion|excreted]] by the cell as the bacterium grows. Exotoxins can produce illness even when the microbes that produced them have been killed. Symptoms typically appear after 1–6 hours depending on the amount of toxin ingested.
*''[[Clostridium botulinum]]''
*''[[Clostridium botulinum]]''
*''[[Clostridium perfringens]]''
*''[[Clostridium perfringens]]''
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*''[[Bacillus cereus]]''
*''[[Bacillus cereus]]''


For example ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' produces a toxin that causes intense [[vomiting]]. The rare but potentially deadly disease [[botulism]] occurs when the [[Anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] bacterium ''[[Clostridium botulinum]]'' grows in improperly canned low-acid foods and produces [[botulin]], a powerful paralytic toxin.
=== Mycotoxins and Alimentary Mycotoxicoses ===
 
* [[Aflatoxins]]  
Pseudoalteromonas tetraodonis, certain species of [[Pseudomonas]] and [[Vibrio]], and some other bacteria, produce the lethal [[tetrodotoxin]], which is present in the [[tissue (biology)|tissue]]s of some living animal species rather than being a product of [[decomposition]].
 
=== Mycotoxins & alimentary mycotoxicoses ===
The term '''alimentary mycotoxicoses''' refers to the effect of poisoning by [[Mycotoxins]] through food consumption. [[Mycotoxins]] have prominently affected on human and animal health such as an outbreak which occurred in the UK in 1960 that caused the death of 100,000 turkeys which had consumed [[aflatoxin]]-contaminated peanut meal and the death of 5000 human lives by Alimentary toxic aleukia (ALA) in the USSR in World War II<ref name=fam>{{cite web
| last = E. Mount
| first = Michael
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Fungi and Mycotoxins <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 11 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/PHR/PHR250/2007/25007Myc.pdf}}</ref>. The common foodborne [[Mycotoxins]] include
 
* [[Aflatoxins]] - originated from [[Aspergillus parasiticus]] and [[Aspergillus flavus]]. They are frequently found in tree nuts, peanuts, maize, sorghum and other oilseeds, including corn and cottonseeds. The pronounced forms of [[Aflatoxins]] are those of B1, B2, G1, and G2, amongst which Aflatoxin B1 predominantly targets the liver, which will result in [[necrosis]], [[cirrhosis]], and [[carcinoma]] <ref name=afltx>{{cite web
| last = Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Aflatoxins <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 12 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/chap41.html}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=gtlmg>{{cite web
| last = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = GASGA Technical Leaflet - 3 Mycotoxins in Grain <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 12 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.fao.org/Wairdocs/X5008E/X5008e01.htm}}</ref>. In the US, the acceptable level of total aflatoxins in foods is less than 20 μg/kg, except for Aflatoxin M1 in milk, which should be less than 0.5 μg/kg <ref name=cfh>{{cite web
| last = World Health Organization
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Chapter 2 Foodborne Hazards in ''Basic Food Safety for Health Workers'' <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 12 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.who.int/entity/foodsafety/publications/capacity/en/2.pdf}}</ref>. The official document can be found at [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]]'s website <ref name=sec683100>{{cite web
| last = Food and Drug Administration
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Sec. 683.100 Action Levels for Aflatoxins in Animal Feeds (CPG 7126.33) <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 13 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.fda.gov/ora/compliance_ref/cpg/cpgvet/cpg683-100.html}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=mfcvmp>{{cite web
| last = Henry
| first = Michael H.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Mycotoxins in Feeds: CVM’s Perspective <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 13 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.fda.gov/cvm/fdaaustintx823.htm}}</ref>.
 
* Altertoxins - are those of [[Alternariol]] (AOH), [[Alternariol]] methyl ether (AME), Altenuene (ALT), Altertoxin-1 (ATX-1), Tenuazonic acid (TeA) and Radicinin (RAD), originated from [[Alternaria]] spp. Some of the toxins can be present in sorghum, [[Finger millet|ragi]], wheat and tomatoes <ref name=atwdw>{{cite web
| last =  Webley
| first =  D. J. ''et al.''
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Alternaria toxins in weather-damaged wheat and sorghum in the 1995-1996 Australian harvest <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 13 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/A97005.htm}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=amwwc>{{cite web
| last =  Li
| first =  Feng-qin
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Takumi Yoshizawa
| title = Alternaria Mycotoxins in Weathered Wheat from China <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 13 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://pubs.acs.org/cgi-bin/abstract.cgi/jafcau/2000/48/i07/abs/jf0000171.html}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=sbtp>{{cite web
| last =  da Motta
| first =  Silvana
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Lucia M. Valente Soares
| title = Survey of Brazilian tomato products for alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, tenuazonic acid and cyclopiazonic acid <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 13 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a713810863~db=all}}</ref>. Some research has shown that the toxins can be easily cross-contaminated between grain commodities, suggesting that manufacturing and storage of grain commodities is a critical practice <ref name=pamaa>{{cite web
| last =  Li
| first =  F. Q. ''et al.''
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title =  Production of Alternaria Mycotoxins by Alternaria alternata Isolated from Weather-Damaged Wheat <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 13 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iafp/jfp/2001/00000064/00000004/art00025}}</ref>.


* Altertoxins
* [[Citrinin]] -  
* [[Citrinin]] -  


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* [[Ergot alkaloids]] / [[Ergopeptine]] [[alkaloids]] - [[Ergotamine]]
* [[Ergot alkaloids]] / [[Ergopeptine]] [[alkaloids]] - [[Ergotamine]]


* [[Fumonisins]] - Crop corn can be easily contaminated by the fungi [[Fusarium moniliforme]], and its [[Fumonisin B1]] will cause Leukoencephalomalacia (LEM) in horses, [[Pulmonary edema syndrome]] (PES) in pigs, liver cancer in rats and [[Esophageal cancer]] in humans <ref name=ftihah>{{cite web
* [[Fumonisins]] -
| last = Marasas
| first = Walter F. O.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Fumonisins: Their implications for human and animal health <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 12 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/112640083/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=off>{{cite web
| last = Soriano
| first = J.M.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = S. Dragacci
| title = Occurrence of fumonisins in foods <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 12 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6V-4D636PW-1&_user=10&_coverDate=01%2F01%2F2004&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=4a033a232e75e4ebf3ee269c06744491}}</ref>. For human and animal health, both the [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] and the EC have regulated the content levels of toxins in food and animal feed <ref name=CVMF>{{cite web
| last = Food and Drug Administration
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = CVM and Fumonisins <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 13 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.fda.gov/cvm/fumonisin.htm}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=mcmmp>{{cite web
| last = Food Standards Agency
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = More contaminated maize meal products withdrawn from sale <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 12 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2003/sep/moremaize}}</ref>.
 
* [[Fusaric acid]] -  
* [[Fusaric acid]] -  


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* Oosporeine -
* Oosporeine -


* [[Patulin]] - Currently, this toxin has been advisably regulated on fruit products.  The EC and the [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] have limited it to under 50 µg/kg for fruit juice and fruit nectar, while limits of 25 µg/kg for solid-contained fruit products and 10 µg/kg for baby foods were specified by the EC <ref name=wrmff>{{cite web
* [[Patulin]]  
| last = FAO FOOD AND NUTRITION PAPER 81
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title =  Worldwide regulations for mycotoxins in food and feed in 2003 <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 13 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5499e/y5499e0f.htm}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=pajajc>{{cite web
| last = Food and Drug Administration
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title =  Patulin in Apple Juice, Apple Juice Concentrates and Apple Juice Products <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 16 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/patubckg.html}}</ref>
 
* [[Phomopsins]] -
* [[Phomopsins]] -


Line 283: Line 129:
| url = http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iafp/jfp/2003/00000066/00000011/art00023}}</ref>.
| url = http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iafp/jfp/2003/00000066/00000011/art00023}}</ref>.


* [[Trichothecenes]] - sourced from Cephalosporium, [[Fusarium]], Myrothecium, [[Stachybotrys]] and [[Trichoderma]]. The toxins are usually found in molded maize, wheat, corn, peanuts and rice, or animal feed of hay and straw <ref name=ofst>{{cite web
* [[Trichothecenes]]
| last = Adejumo
| first = Timothy O.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Occurrence of Fusarium species and trichothecenes in Nigerian maize <internet>
| publisher =  Elsevier
| accessdaymonth = 12 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T7K-4N5CX4H-3&_user=10&_coverDate=05%2F30%2F2007&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=d02d1b28456dfbef669d57692ac28244}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=snhe>{{cite web
| last = Mazur
| first = Lynnette J.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Janice Kim
| title = Spectrum of Noninfectious Health Effects From Molds <internet>
| publisher =  American Academy of Pediatrics
| accessdaymonth = 12 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/118/6/e1909}}</ref>. Four trichothecenes, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) and [[deoxynivalenol]] (DON) have been most commonly encountered by humans and animals. The consequences of oral intake of, or dermal exposure to, the toxins will result in Alimentary toxic aleukia, [[neutropenia]], [[aplastic anemia]], [[thrombocytopenia]] and/or skin irritaion <ref name=tthm>{{cite web
| last = Froquet
| first = R. ''et al.''
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Trichothecene toxicity on human megakaryocyte progenitors (CFU-MK) <internet>
| publisher =  SAGE Publications
| accessdaymonth = 12 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://het.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/84}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=csytt>{{cite web
| last = Joffe
| first = A. Z.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = B. Yagen
| title = Comparative study of the yield of T-2 toxic produced by Fusarium poae, F. sporotrichioides and F. sporotrichioides var. tricinctum strains from different sources <internet>
| publisher =  SAGE Publications
| accessdaymonth = 12 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://het.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/84}}</ref><sup>,</sup> <ref name=fis>{{cite web
| last =  Hay
| first =  Rod J.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = B. Yagen
| title = Fusarium infections of the skin <internet>
| publisher = 
| accessdaymonth = 12 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.co-infectiousdiseases.com/pt/re/coinfdis/abstract.00001432-200704000-00002.htm;jsessionid=G2JGL27MSRdb4TS82LyckCgxLH2zJLX3ynBfjz5kjMyfh4WpVkLg!1152499061!181195629!8091!-1}}</ref>. In 1993, the [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] issued a document for the content limits of DON in food and animal feed at an advisory level <ref name=gifda>{{cite web
| last = Food and Drug Administration
| first =
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Guidance for Industry and FDA - Letter to State Agricultural Directors, State Feed Control Officials, and Food, Feed, and Grain Trade Organizations <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 13 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/graingui.html}}</ref>. In 2003, US published a patent that is very promising for farmers to produce a trichothecene-resistant crop <ref name=trtp>{{cite web
| last = Hohn
| first = Thomas M.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title =  Trichothecene-resistant transgenic plants <internet>
| publisher =
| accessdaymonth = 13 August
| accessyear = 2007
| url = http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/6646184.html}}</ref>.
 
* [[Zearalenone]] -
* [[Zearalenone]] -


* Zearalenols -
* Zearalenols -


====Emerging foodborne pathogens====
====Emerging Foodborne Pathogens====
Much is still not known about foodborne illness. Approximately sixty percent of outbreaks are still caused by unknown sources.   
Much is still not known about foodborne illness. Approximately sixty percent of outbreaks are still caused by unknown sources.   


*''[[Aeromonas hydrophila]]'', ''Aeromonas caviae'', ''Aeromonas sobria''
*''[[Aeromonas hydrophila]]'', ''Aeromonas caviae'', ''Aeromonas sobria''
====Preventing bacterial food poisoning====
Prevention is mainly the role of the state, through the definition of strict rules of [[hygiene]] and a public services of [[veterinary medicine|veterinary]] surveying of animal products in the food chain, from farming to the transformation industry and delivery (shops and restaurants). This regulation includes:
* [[traceability]]: in a final product, it must be possible to know the origin of the ingredients (originating farm, identification of the harvesting or of the animal) and where and when it was processed; the origin of the illness can thus be tracked and solved (and possibly penalized), and the final products can be removed from the sale if a problem is detected;
* enforement of hygiene procedures like [[HACCP]] and the "[[cold chain]]";
* power of control and of law enforcement of [[veterinarian]]s.
In August 2006, the United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] approved [[Phage therapy]] which involves spraying meat with viruses that infect bacteria, and thus preventing infection. This has raised concerns, because without [[mandatory labelling]] consumers wouldn't be aware that meat and poultry products have been treated with the spray. [http://www.forbes.com/business/healthcare/feeds/ap/2006/08/18/ap2959720.html]
At home, prevention mainly consists of good [[food safety]] practices. Many forms of bacterial poisoning can be prevented even if food is contaminated by heating it sufficiently, and either eating it quickly or refrigerating it effectively. Heating to about 65 degrees Celsius for a few minutes is sufficient. Many toxins, however, are not destroyed by heat treatment.


===Viruses===
===Viruses===
[[Virus|Viral]] infections make up perhaps one third of cases of food poisoning in developed countries. In the US, more than 50% of cases are viral and [[Norwalk virus group|noroviruses]] are the most common foodborne illness, causing 57% of outbreaks in 2004. Foodborne viral infection are usually of intermediate (1–3 days) [[incubation period]], causing illnesses which are self-limited in otherwise healthy individuals, and are similar to the bacterial forms described above.
[[Image:Rotavirus.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Rotavirus]]
* [[Enterovirus]]
* [[Enterovirus]]
* [[Hepatitis A]] is distinguished from other viral causes by its prolonged (2–6 week) [[incubation period]] and its ability to spread beyond the stomach and intestines, into the [[liver]]. It often induces [[jaundice]], or yellowing of the skin, and rarely leads to chronic liver dysfunction. The virus has been found to cause the infection due to the consumption of fresh-cut produce which has fecal contamination <ref name=ivcma>{{cite web
* [[Hepatitis A]] is distinguished from other viral causes by its prolonged (2–6 week) [[incubation period]] and its ability to spread beyond the stomach and intestines, into the [[liver]]. It often induces [[jaundice]], or yellowing of the skin, and rarely leads to chronic liver dysfunction. The virus has been found to cause the infection due to the consumption of fresh-cut produce which has fecal contamination <ref name=ivcma>{{cite web
Line 399: Line 169:
[[Platyhelminthes]]:
[[Platyhelminthes]]:
* ''[[Diphyllobothrium]]'' sp.
* ''[[Diphyllobothrium]]'' sp.
[[Image:Tenia solium scolex.jpg|right|200px|thumb|The scolex of ''Tenia solium'']]
*''Nanophyetus'' sp.
*''Nanophyetus'' sp.
*''[[Taenia saginata]]''
*''[[Taenia saginata]]''
*''[[Taenia solium]]''
*''[[Taenia solium]]''
*''[[Fasciola hepatica]]''
*''[[Fasciola hepatica]]''
''See also: [[Tapeworm]] and [[Flatworm]]''


[[Nematode]]:
[[Nematode]]:
Line 414: Line 182:


[[Protozoa]]:
[[Protozoa]]:
[[Image:Giardia lamblia.jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Giardia lamblia'']]
* ''[[Acanthamoeba]]'' and other free-living [[amoeba]]e
* ''[[Acanthamoeba]]'' and other free-living [[amoeba]]e
* ''[[Cryptosporidiosis|Cryptosporidium parvum]]''
* ''[[Cryptosporidiosis|Cryptosporidium parvum]]''
Line 424: Line 191:
* ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]''
* ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]''


===Natural toxins===
===Natural Toxins===
Several foods can naturally contain [[toxins]], many of which are not produced by bacteria. Plants in particular may be toxic; animals which are naturally poisonous to eat are rare. In evolutionary terms, animals can escape being eaten by fleeing; plants can use only passive defences such as poisons and distasteful substances, for example [[capsaicin]] in chilis and pungent [[sulphur]] compounds in [[garlic]] and [[onion]]s. Most animal poisons are not synthesised by the animal, but acquired by eating poisonous plants to which the animal is immune, or by bacterial action.
Several foods can naturally contain [[toxins]], many of which are not produced by bacteria. Plants in particular may be toxic; animals which are naturally poisonous to eat are rare. In evolutionary terms, animals can escape being eaten by fleeing; plants can use only passive defences such as poisons and distasteful substances, for example [[capsaicin]] in chilis and pungent [[sulphur]] compounds in [[garlic]] and [[onion]]s. Most animal poisons are not synthesised by the animal, but acquired by eating poisonous plants to which the animal is immune, or by bacterial action.
* [[Alkaloid]]s
* [[Alkaloid]]s
Line 441: Line 208:
* Poisonous hemlock ([[conium]]) has medicinal uses.
* Poisonous hemlock ([[conium]]) has medicinal uses.


===Other pathogenic agents===
===Other Pathogenic Agents===
* [[Prion]]s, resulting in [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]]
* [[Prion]]s, resulting in [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]]


==="Ptomaine poisoning"===
===Ptomaine Poisoning===
An early theory on the causes of food poisoning involved [[#Ptomaine|ptomaines]], [[alkaloid]]s found in decaying animal and vegetable matter. While some alkaloids do cause poisoning, the discovery of bacteria left the ptomaine theory obsolete and the word "ptomaine" is no longer used scientifically.
An early theory on the causes of food poisoning involved [[#Ptomaine|ptomaines]], [[alkaloid]]s found in decaying animal and vegetable matter. While some alkaloids do cause poisoning, the discovery of bacteria left the ptomaine theory obsolete and the word "ptomaine" is no longer used scientifically.


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}
[[Category:Food safety]]
[[Category:Food safety]]
[[Category:Foodborne illnesses|*]]
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[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[Category:Emergency medicine]]
[[Category:Emergency medicine]]
[[Category:Intensive care medicine]]
[[Category:Intensive care medicine]]
[[Category:Needs overview]]




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Latest revision as of 17:45, 18 September 2017

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]

Causes

Bacteria

Bacteria are a common cause of foodborne illness.

Most common bacterial foodborne pathogens are:

Less common bacterial agents:

Exotoxins

Mycotoxins and Alimentary Mycotoxicoses

  • Citreoviridin -
  • Fusarochromanone -
  • Lolitrem alkaloids -
  • 3-Nitropropionic acid -
  • Nivalenol -
  • Ochratoxins - In Australia, The Limit of Reporting (LOR) level for Ochratoxin A (OTA) analyses in 20th Australian Total Diet Survey was 1 µg/kg [4], whereas the EC restricts the content of OTA to 5 µg/kg in cereal commodities, 3 µg/kg in processed products and 10 µg/kg in dried vine fruits [5].
  • Oosporeine -
  • Sporidesmin A -
  • Tremorgenic mycotoxins - Five of them have been reported to be associated with molds found in fermented meats. These are Fumitremorgen B, Paxilline, Penitrem A, Verrucosidin, and Verruculogen [6].
  • Zearalenols -

Emerging Foodborne Pathogens

Much is still not known about foodborne illness. Approximately sixty percent of outbreaks are still caused by unknown sources.

Viruses

  • Enterovirus
  • Hepatitis A is distinguished from other viral causes by its prolonged (2–6 week) incubation period and its ability to spread beyond the stomach and intestines, into the liver. It often induces jaundice, or yellowing of the skin, and rarely leads to chronic liver dysfunction. The virus has been found to cause the infection due to the consumption of fresh-cut produce which has fecal contamination [7], [8].
  • Hepatitis E
  • Norovirus
  • Rotavirus

Parasites

Most foodborne parasites are zoonoses.

Platyhelminthes:

Nematode:

Protozoa:

Natural Toxins

Several foods can naturally contain toxins, many of which are not produced by bacteria. Plants in particular may be toxic; animals which are naturally poisonous to eat are rare. In evolutionary terms, animals can escape being eaten by fleeing; plants can use only passive defences such as poisons and distasteful substances, for example capsaicin in chilis and pungent sulphur compounds in garlic and onions. Most animal poisons are not synthesised by the animal, but acquired by eating poisonous plants to which the animal is immune, or by bacterial action.

Some plants contain substances which are toxic in large doses, but have therapeutic properties in appropriate dosages.

Other Pathogenic Agents

Ptomaine Poisoning

An early theory on the causes of food poisoning involved ptomaines, alkaloids found in decaying animal and vegetable matter. While some alkaloids do cause poisoning, the discovery of bacteria left the ptomaine theory obsolete and the word "ptomaine" is no longer used scientifically.

References

  1. ↑ Tribe, Ingrid G.; et al. "An outbreak of Salmonella Typhimurium phage type 135 infection linked to the consumption of raw shell eggs in an aged care facility <internet>". Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  2. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "Salmonella Infection (salmonellosis) and Animals <internet>". Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  3. ↑ Doyle, M. P. "Reducing the carriage of foodborne pathogens in livestock and poultry <internet>" (PDF). Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  4. ↑ Food Standards Australia New Zealand. "20th Australian Total Diet Survey - Part B <internet>". Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  5. ↑ FAO FOOD AND NUTRITION PAPER 81. "Worldwide regulations for mycotoxins in food and feed in 2003 <internet>". Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  6. ↑ Sabater-Vilar, M. "Genotoxicity Assessment of Five Tremorgenic Mycotoxins (Fumitremorgen B, Paxilline, Penitrem A, Verruculogen, and Verrucosidin) Produced by Molds Isolated from Fermented Meats <internet>". Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  7. ↑ Dubois, Eric; et al. "Intra-laboratory validation of a concentration method adapted for the enumeration of infectious F-specific RNA coliphage, enterovirus, and hepatitis A virus from inoculated leaves of salad vegetables <internet>". Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  8. ↑ Schmidt, Heather Martin. "Improving the microbilological quality and safety of fresh-cut tomatoes by low dose dlectron beam irradiation - Master thesis <internet>" (PDF). Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)


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