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{{Vertigo}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{Hilda}}; {{VR}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{ZMalik}}  


==Overview==
==Overview==
Vertigo can result from problems of the [[inner ear]] or the vestibular system which is composed of the semicircular canals, the otolith (utricle and saccule) and the vestibular [[nerve]].  Hence, depending on the cause of the vertigo, it can be referred to as "peripheral", "otologic" or "vestibular" vertigo. The most common cause is [[benign paroxysmal positional vertigo]] (BPPV), which accounts for 32% of all peripheral vertigo. Other causes include [[Ménière's disease]] (12%), superior canal dehiscence syndrome, [[labyrinthitis]] and visual vertigo.  Any cause of [[inflammation]] such as [[common cold]], [[influenza]], and bacterial infections may cause transient vertigo if it involves the inner ear, as may chemical insults (e.g., [[aminoglycosides]]) or physical trauma (e.g., skull fractures).  [[Motion sickness]] is sometimes classified as a cause of peripheral vertigo.
Common causes of vertigo may include [[Ménière’s disease]], [[benign paroxysmal positional vertigo]], [[labyrinthitis]], [[vestibular neuritis]]. Less common causes of vertigo may include [[mood disorder]], [[anxiety]], and [[migraine]]. Life-threatening causes include [[brainstem]] [[ischemia]]/[[hemorrhage]], [[hypertension]] [[crisis]], [[drug]] [[overdose]], [[cyanide]] [[poisoning]].


==Causes==
==Causes==
===Life Threatening Causes===
Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.


*[[Brainstem stroke]]
===Common Causes===
*[[Intracranial hemorrhage|Cerebellar hemorrhage]]
*[[Cerebellar infarction]]
*[[Cyanide]]
*[[Drug overdose]]
*[[Head injury]]
*[[Stroke]]<ref name="Gauss-2008">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Gauss | first1 = I. | last2 = Delank | first2 = KW. | last3 = Esser | first3 = M. | last4 = Grau | first4 = A. | title = [Life-threatening differential diagnoses of vertigo and sudden hearing loss]. | journal = HNO | volume = 56 | issue = 7 | pages = 733-40; quiz 741 | month = Jul | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1007/s00106-008-1771-5 | PMID = 18566785 }}</ref>


===Common Causes===
:*Common causes of vertigo may include:
*[[Acoustic neuroma]]
:*
*[[Aminoglycosides]]
*[[Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo]]
*[[Lateral medullary syndrome|Brainstem ischemia]]
*[[Intracranial hemorrhage|Cerebellar hemorrhage]]
*[[Cerebellar infarction]]
*[[Labyrinthitis]]
*[[Medications]]
*[[Meniere's disease]]
*[[Migraine|Migrainous vertigo]]
*[[Otitis media]]
*[[Superior canal dehiscence syndrome]]
*[[Vestibular neuritis]]<ref name="Kroenke-2000">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Kroenke | first1 = K. | last2 = Hoffman | first2 = RM. | last3 = Einstadter | first3 = D. | title = How common are various causes of dizziness? A critical review. | journal = South Med J | volume = 93 | issue = 2 | pages = 160-7; quiz 168 | month = Feb | year = 2000 | doi =  | PMID = 10701780 }}</ref>


===Causes by Organ System===
{| class="wikitable"
{|style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
|+
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | '''Cardiovascular'''
! colspan="2" |Peripheral Vertigo Causes<ref> name="Karatas2008">{{cite journal|last1=Karatas|first1=Mehmet|title=Central Vertigo and Dizziness|journal=The Neurologist|volume=14|issue=6|year=2008|pages=355–364|issn=1074-7931|doi=10.1097/NRL.0b013e31817533a3}}</ref>
|style="height:100px"; style="width:75%" border="1" bgcolor="Beige" | [[Abdominal aortic aneurysm]], [[coronary heart disease]], [[malignant hypertension]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
![[Ménière’s disease]]
| '''Chemical / poisoning'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Amanita muscaria]], [[arsine]], [[cyanide]], [[multiple chemical sensitivity]], [[nitrogen narcosis]], [[snakebites]], [[tsetse fly]]  
*Increased [[endolymph]] volume in [[semicircular canals]]. Recurrent vertigo, aural fullness, hearing loss and [[tinnitus]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
![[Acoustic neuroma]]
| '''Dermatologic'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Neurofibromatosis]]  
*[[tinnitus]], ear pain, [[aural fullness]], [[headache]], facial weakness.
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
![[Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo]]
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate]], [[4-HO-MPT]], [[ACE inhibitors]], [[aminoglycosides]], [[anti-obesity drug]], [[antibiotics]], [[anticonvulsants]], [[antiretroviral drug]], [[biperiden]], [[buspirone]], [[cabergoline]], [[daptomycin]], [[flucytosine]], [[gamma-hydroxybutyric acid]], [[gentamicin]], [[histamine agonist]], [[hydroxychloroquine]], [[ibotenic acid]], [[indomethacin]], [[isosorbide mononitrate]], [[ketorolac]], [[leflunomide]], [[loop diuretic]], [[loprazolam]], [[lorazepam]], [[lormetazepam]], [[malaria prophylaxis]], [[methimazole]], [[methocarbamol]], [[methylprednisolone]], [[minocycline hydrochloride]], [[moclobemide]], [[modafinil]], [[nabumetone]], [[nialamide]], [[nitrazepam]], [[oprelvekin]], [[papaverine]], [[paroxetine]], [[Pentamidine Isethionate]], [[perphenazine]], [[praziquantel]], [[rizatriptan]], [[ropinirole]], [[sedatives]], [[SSRI discontinuation syndrome]], [[streptomycin]], [[sultiame]], [[temazepam]], [[trazodone]], [[tuberculosis treatment]], [[valaciclovir]], [[venlafaxine]], [[vigabatrin]], [[viloxazine]], [[zimelidine]], [[zonisamide]], [[zolmitriptan]]
*Dislodged [[otoliths]] stimulate vestibular sense organ. Recurrent vertigo, nausea, vomiting, [[torsional]] [[nystagmus]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
![[Acute]] [[labyrinthitis]]
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Acoustic neuroma]], [[cholesteatoma]], [[Cogan syndrome]], [[earwax]], [[glomus tumor]], [[herpes zoster oticus]], [[Vertebrobasilar insufficiency|labyrinth infarction]], [[Concussion|labyrinthine concussion]], [[labyrinthitis]], [[Ménière's disease]], [[Osteoma|osteoma of the external ear canal]], [[otitis externa]], [[otitis media]], [[ototoxicity]], [[perilymphatic fistula]], [[Superior canal dehiscence syndrome|semicircular canal dehiscence syndrome]], [[superior canal dehiscence syndrome]]
*[[Inflammation]] of [[labyrinth]]/ [[viral]] or [[bacterial]]. Temporary hearing loss, vertigo, off balance, [[tinnitus]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Endocrine'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Environmental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Microwave auditory effect]], [[noise health effects]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
![[Acute]] [[vestibular neuritis]]
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
*[[Inflammation]] of [[vestibular]] nerve caused by [[viral]] [[infection]]. Vertigo, hearing intact
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
![[Herpes Zoster Oticus]]
| '''Genetic'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Fabry's disease]], [[neurofibromatosis]]
*Ear pain, [[facial palsy]], hearing loss, [[tinnitus]] vertigo herpetic eruptions of the [[auricle]] and/or [[external auditory canal]].
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
![[Cholesteatoma]]
| '''Hematologic'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Polycythemia vera]]
*[[Cyst]]/sac of [[keratin]] debris in middle ear. Fullness/pressure in the ear, vertigo, hearing loss, pain
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
![[Otosclerosis]]
| '''Iatrogenic'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
*Abnormal bone growth in the middle ear. Vertigo, [[tinnitus]] and, sensorineural hearing loss
 
|+
! colspan="2" |Central Vertigo Causes<ref name="Kerber2009">{{cite journal|last1=Kerber|first1=Kevin A.|title=Vertigo and Dizziness in the Emergency Department|journal=Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America|volume=27|issue=1|year=2009|pages=39–50|issn=07338627|doi=10.1016/j.emc.2008.09.002}}</ref>
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
![[Brainstem]] [[Stroke]]
| '''Infectious Disease'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Bacterial infection]], [[common cold]], [[herpes zoster oticus]], [[influenza]], [[labyrinthitis]], [[lyme disease]], [[mastoiditis]], [[syphillis]], [[viral infection]]
*Vertigo, imbalance, double vision, slurred speech, and altered [[consciousness]].
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
![[Vestibular]] [[Migraine]]
| '''Musculoskeletal / Ortho'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
*Mostly unilateral severe throbbing [[headache]], vertigo lasting minutes to hours, sensitivity to motion/light/smell/noise, [[nausea]], [[vomiting]], imbalance.
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
![[Multiple Sclerosis]]
| '''Neurologic'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Acoustic neuroma]], [[arachnoid cyst]], [[Arnold-Chiari malformation]], [[astrocytoma]], [[balance disorder]], [[benign paroxysmal positional vertigo]], [[brain zaps]], [[Lateral medullary syndrome|brainstem infarction]], [[Lateral medullary syndrome|brainstem ischemia]], [[brainstem stroke]], [[Ludwig Bruns|Bruns' syndrome]], [[Intracranial hemorrhage|cerebellar hemorrhage]], [[cerebellar infarction]], [[cerebral shunt]], [[cerebrovascular accident]], [[colloid cyst]], [[ependymoma]], [[episodic ataxia]], [[facial nerve paralysis]], [[hydrocephalus]], [[Intracranial hemorrhage|inferior cerebellar bleeding]], [[Cerebellar infarction|inferior cerebellar infarction]], [[lateral medullary syndrome]], [[medulloblastoma]], [[meningioma]], [[migraine headaches]], [[Migraine|migrainous vertigo]], [[multiple sclerosis]], [[neurofibromatosis]], [[non-epileptic seizure]], [[oculogyric crisis]], [[opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome]], [[Ramsay Hunt syndrome]], [[Migraine|recurrent vestibulopathy]], [[sensorineural hearing loss]], [[spinocerebellar ataxia]], [[stroke]], [[stroke recovery]], [[Tolosa-Hunt syndrome]], [[vasovagal syncope]], [[vertebrobasilar insufficiency]], [[Transient ischemic attack|vertebrobasilar transient ischemic attack]], [[vestibular neuritis]]
*Vertigo may accompany other symptoms like vision problem, fatigue, [[numbness]]/[[tingling]], limited mobility, bladder/bowel/speech/swallowing impairment.
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
![[Cerebellopontine angle]] [[tumors]]
| '''Nutritional / Metabolic'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Metabolic acidosis]]
*[[Meningioma]] or [[schwannoma]] in [[cerebellopontine]] angle can cause vertigo due to pressure on [[vestibular]] [[nerve]].
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
![[Lateral medullary syndrome]]
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Hyperemesis gravidarum]]
*Results from ischemia in the lateral part of the [[brainstem]]([[medulla oblongata]]). Associated with [[ataxia]], [[nystagmus]], vertigo, [[dysphagia]], [[dysarthria]].
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
![[Chiari malformation]]
| '''Oncologic'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Acoustic neuroma]], [[astrocytoma]], [[ependymoma]], [[medulloblastoma]], [[meningioma]], [[Osteoma|osteoma of the external ear]]
*Extension of [[brainstem]] into [[spinal canal]]. Associated with [[numbness]]/[[tingling]] of hands and feet, [[dysphagia]], vertigo, unsteady [[gait]], hoarseness.
 
|+
! colspan="2" |Other Causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
!Medication induced
| '''Opthalmologic'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Cogan syndrome]]
*[[Aminoglycosides]], [[anticonvulsants]]([[phenytoin]]), [[anti-depressants]]([[tricyclic antidepressants]], [[monoamine oxidase]]), [[antihypertensives]], [[diuretics]] ([[furosemide]]), [[barbiturates]], [[cocaine]], [[nitroglycerin]], [[salicylates]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
![[Psychogenic]]
| '''Overdose / Toxicity'''
|
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Alcohol]], [[aminoglycosides]], [[atenolol]], [[cinchonism]], [[drug overdose]], [[gentamicin]], [[hellebore]]  
*Mood, [[anxiety]], or [[alcohol]] abuse disorders
|-
|}<br />
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
 
| '''Psychiatric'''
===Less Common Causes===
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Panic attack]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Pulmonary'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Renal / Electrolyte'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Chronic renal failure]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheum / Immune / Allergy'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Cogan syndrome]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Sexual'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Head injury]], [[Concussion|labyrinthine concussion]], [[skull fractures]]
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Urologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Airsickness]], [[chronic fatigue syndrome]], [[decompression sickness]], [[deep water blackout]], [[morning sickness]], [[motion sickness]], [[sea-sickness]], [[sound pressure]], [[taravana]], [[tobacco smoking]], [[visceroptosis]]
|-
|}


===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
*[[Mood disorder]]<ref name="BrantbergTrees2009">{{cite journal|last1=Brantberg|first1=Krister|last2=Trees|first2=Natalie|last3=Baloh|first3=Robert W.|title=Migraine-associated vertigo|journal=Acta Oto-Laryngologica|volume=125|issue=3|year=2009|pages=276–279|issn=0001-6489|doi=10.1080/00016480510003165}}</ref><ref name="BalabanJacob2001">{{cite journal|last1=Balaban|first1=Carey D.|last2=Jacob|first2=Rolf G.|title=Background and history of the interface between anxiety and vertigo|journal=Journal of Anxiety Disorders|volume=15|issue=1-2|year=2001|pages=27–51|issn=08876185|doi=10.1016/S0887-6185(00)00041-4}}</ref>
{{col-begin|width=80%}}
*[[Anxiety]]
{{col-break|width=33%}}
*[[Migraine]]
*[[3-Quinuclidinyl benzilate]]
*
*[[4-HO-MPT]]
*[[Abdominal aortic aneurysm]]
*[[Acoustic neuroma]]
*[[Airsickness]]
*[[Alcohol]]
*[[Amanita muscaria]]
*[[Aminoglycosides]]
*[[Anti-obesity drug]]
*[[Antibiotics]]
*[[Anticonvulsants]]
*[[Antiretroviral drug]]
*[[Arachnoid cyst]]
*[[Arnold-Chiari malformation]]
*[[Arsine]]
*[[Astrocytoma]]
*[[Atenolol]]
*[[Bacterial infection]]
*[[Balance disorder]]
*[[Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo]]
*[[Biperiden]]
*[[Brain zaps]]
*[[Lateral medullary syndrome|Brainstem infarction]]
*[[Lateral medullary syndrome|Brainstem ischemia]]
*[[Brainstem stroke]]
*[[Ludwig Bruns|Bruns' syndrome]]
*[[Buspirone]]
*[[Cabergoline]]
*[[Intracranial hemorrhage|Cerebellar hemorrhage]]
*[[Cerebellar infarction]]
*[[Cerebral shunt]]
*[[Cerebrovascular accident]]
*[[Cholesteatoma]]
*[[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]
*[[Chronic renal failure]]
*[[Cinchonism]]
*[[Cogan syndrome]]
*[[Colloid cyst]]
*[[Common cold]]
*[[Coronary heart disease]]
*[[ACE inhibitors]]
*[[Cyanide]]
*[[Daptomycin]]
*[[Decompression sickness]]
*[[Deep water blackout]]
*[[Drug overdose]]
*[[Earwax]]
*[[Efavirenz]]
*[[Ependymoma]]
*[[Episodic ataxia ]]
*[[Fabry's disease]]
{{col-break|width=33%}}
*[[Facial nerve paralysis]]
*[[Flucytosine]]
*[[Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid]]
*[[Gentamicin]]
*[[Glomus tumor]]
*[[Head injury]]
*[[Hellebore]]
*[[Herpes zoster oticus]]
*[[Histamine agonist]]
*[[Hydrocephalus]]
*[[Hyperemesis gravidarum]]
*[[Ibotenic acid]]
*[[Intracranial hemorrhage|Inferior cerebellar bleeding]]
*[[Cerebellar infarction|Inferior cerebellar infarction]]
*[[Influenza]]
*[[Isosorbide mononitrate]]
*[[Ketorolac]]
*[[Vertebrobasilar insufficiency|Labyrinth infarction]]
*[[Concussion|Labyrinthine concussion]]
*[[Labyrinthitis]]
*[[Lateral medullary syndrome]]
*[[Loop diuretic]]
*[[Loprazolam]]
*[[Lorazepam]]
*[[Lormetazepam]]
*[[Lyme disease]]
*[[Malaria prophylaxis]]
*[[Malignant hypertension]]
*[[Mastoiditis]]
*[[Medulloblastoma]]
*[[Meniere's disease]]
*[[Meningioma]]
*[[Metabolic acidosis]]
*[[Microwave auditory effect]]
*[[Migraine headaches]]
*[[Migraine|Migrainous vertigo]]
*[[Minocycline]]
*[[Moclobemide]]
*[[Modafinil]]
*[[Morning sickness]]
*[[Motion sickness]]
*[[Multiple chemical sensitivity]]
*[[Multiple sclerosis]]
*[[Neurofibromatosis]]
*[[Nialamide]]
*[[Nitrazepam]]
*[[Nitrogen narcosis]]
*[[Noise health effects]]
*[[Non-epileptic seizure]]
*[[Oculogyric crisis]]
{{col-break|width=33%}}
*[[Oprelvekin]]
*[[Opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome]]
*[[Osteoma|Osteoma of the external ear canal]]
*[[Otitis externa]]
*[[Otitis media]]
*[[Ototoxicity]]
*[[Panic attack]]
*[[Papaverine]]
*[[Paroxetine]]
*[[Perilymphatic fistula]]
*[[Perphenazine]]
*[[Polycythemia vera]]
*[[Praziquantel]]
*[[Ramsay Hunt syndrome ]]
*[[Migraine|Recurrent vestibulopathy]]
*[[Sea-sickness]]
*[[Sedatives]]
*[[Superior canal dehiscence syndrome|Semicircular canal dehiscence syndrome]]
*[[Superior canal dehiscence syndrome]]
*[[Sensorineural hearing loss]]
*[[Skull fractures]]
*[[Snakebites ]]
*[[Sound pressure]]
*[[Spinocerebellar ataxia]]
*[[SSRI discontinuation syndrome]]
*[[Streptomycin]]
*[[Stroke]]
*[[Stroke recovery]]
*[[Sultiame]]
*[[Superior canal dehiscence syndrome|Superior canal dehiscence syndrome]]
*[[Syphillis]]
*[[Taravana]]
*[[Temazepam]]
*[[Tobacco smoking]]
*[[Tolosa-Hunt syndrome]]
*[[Trazodone]]
*[[Tsetse fly]]
*[[Tuberculosis treatment]]
*[[Valaciclovir]]
*[[Vasovagal syncope]]
*[[Venlafaxine]]
*[[Vertebrobasilar insufficiency]]
*[[Transient ischemic attack|Vertebrobasilar transient ischemic attack]]
*[[Vestibular neuritis]]
*[[Vigabatrin]]
*[[Viloxazine]]
*[[Viral infection]]
*[[Visceroptosis]]
*[[Zimelidine]]
*[[Zolmitriptan]]
{{col-end}}


<br />
==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}
{{WH}}
{{WS}}


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Latest revision as of 20:02, 20 January 2021

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Zehra Malik, M.B.B.S[2]

Overview

Common causes of vertigo may include Ménière’s disease, benign paroxysmal positional vertigo, labyrinthitis, vestibular neuritis. Less common causes of vertigo may include mood disorder, anxiety, and migraine. Life-threatening causes include brainstem ischemia/hemorrhage, hypertension crisis, drug overdose, cyanide poisoning.

Causes

Common Causes

  • Common causes of vertigo may include:
Peripheral Vertigo Causes[1]
Ménière’s disease
Acoustic neuroma
Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo
Acute labyrinthitis
Acute vestibular neuritis
Herpes Zoster Oticus
Cholesteatoma
  • Cyst/sac of keratin debris in middle ear. Fullness/pressure in the ear, vertigo, hearing loss, pain
Otosclerosis
  • Abnormal bone growth in the middle ear. Vertigo, tinnitus and, sensorineural hearing loss
Central Vertigo Causes[2]
Brainstem Stroke
  • Vertigo, imbalance, double vision, slurred speech, and altered consciousness.
Vestibular Migraine
  • Mostly unilateral severe throbbing headache, vertigo lasting minutes to hours, sensitivity to motion/light/smell/noise, nausea, vomiting, imbalance.
Multiple Sclerosis
  • Vertigo may accompany other symptoms like vision problem, fatigue, numbness/tingling, limited mobility, bladder/bowel/speech/swallowing impairment.
Cerebellopontine angle tumors
Lateral medullary syndrome
Chiari malformation
Other Causes
Medication induced
Psychogenic


Less Common Causes


References

  1. ↑ name="Karatas2008">Karatas, Mehmet (2008). "Central Vertigo and Dizziness". The Neurologist. 14 (6): 355–364. doi:10.1097/NRL.0b013e31817533a3. ISSN 1074-7931.
  2. ↑ Kerber, Kevin A. (2009). "Vertigo and Dizziness in the Emergency Department". Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America. 27 (1): 39–50. doi:10.1016/j.emc.2008.09.002. ISSN 0733-8627.
  3. ↑ Brantberg, Krister; Trees, Natalie; Baloh, Robert W. (2009). "Migraine-associated vertigo". Acta Oto-Laryngologica. 125 (3): 276–279. doi:10.1080/00016480510003165. ISSN 0001-6489.
  4. ↑ Balaban, Carey D.; Jacob, Rolf G. (2001). "Background and history of the interface between anxiety and vertigo". Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 15 (1–2): 27–51. doi:10.1016/S0887-6185(00)00041-4. ISSN 0887-6185.

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