Osteoporosis resident survival guide
For Osteoporosis click here.
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Eiman Ghaffarpasand, M.D. [2]
| Osteoporosis Resident Survival Guide Microchapters |
|---|
| Overview |
| Classification |
| Causes |
| FIRE |
| Diagnosis |
| Treatment |
| Do's |
| Don'ts |
Overview
Osteoporosis was first discovered by John Hunter, British surgeon, in 1800's. Osteoporosis divided to primary and secondary diseases, upon classification based on disease origin. While, it becomes divided to osteopenia, osteoporosis, and severe osteoporosis, upon classification based on disease severity. The pathophysiology of osteoporosis basically involves an imbalance between bone resorption and bone formation. Major factors that contribute to the development of osteoporosis include estrogen deficit and aging. The main pathway, through which these factors might lead to osteoporosis is reactive oxygen species (ROS) damage to osteocytes. Decreasing the capability of autophagy in osteocytes is another important issue; which make them vulnerable to oxidative stresses. Genes involved in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis are many genes that majorly can categorized in four main groups, include the osteoblast regulatory genes, osteoclast regulatory genes, bone matrix elements genes, and hormone/receptor genes. Osteoporosis must be differentiated from other diseases that cause decreasing in bone mineral density (BMD), such as idiopathic transient osteoporosis of hip, osteomalacia, scurvy, osteogenesis imperfecta, multiple myeloma, homocystinuria, and hypermetabolic resorptive osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is a major health problem involving 43.9% (43.4 million) of male and female population in the United States. White females and African-American males have the highest frequency among the other races. Risk factors for osteoporosis disease are of two types, including non-modifiable and modifiable (potentially) factors. Non-modifiable risk factors are age, sex, menopause, and family history. Modifiable (potentially) factors are smoking, alcohol consumption, immobility, glucocorticoid abuse, and proton pump inhibitor (PPI). Today, risk of fracture due to osteoporosis is threatening one out of two postmenopausal women and also one out of five older men. The 10-year risk for any osteoporosis-related fractures in 65-year-old white woman with no other risk factor is 9.3%. Upon the guidelines of USPSTF, all women ≥ 65 years old along with women < 65 years old with high risk of fracture are target of screening for osteoporosis; but there is not any recommendation to screen men for the disease. There are two major methods, that is suggested to use for screening osteoporosis, include dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) of both hip and lumbar spine bones, and quantitative ultrasonography of the calcaneus. If left untreated, most of patients with osteoporosis may progress to develop fracture. With appropriate and timely usage of medications along with calcium and/or vitamin D supplementation, the outcome of osteoporosis is usually good. The mainstays of treatment in primary osteoporosis disease are based on in lifestyle modifications. Most of the time in high risk patients and people with past history of osteoporotic fracture, medical therapy is necessary. Bisphosphonates are the first line treatment for osteoporosis disease. Raloxifene is the second line treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women, for both treatment and prevention. Denosumab is a human monoclonal antibody designed to inhibit RANKL (RANK ligand), a protein that acts as the primary signal for bone removal. It is used to treat Osteoporosis in elder men and postmenopausal women. Teriparatide and Abaloparatide are human recombinant parathyroid hormones used to treat postmenopausal woman with osteoporosis at high risk of fracture or to increase bone mass in men with osteoporosis.