Osteoporosis causes: Difference between revisions
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__NOTOC__ | __NOTOC__ | ||
{{Osteoporosis}} | {{Osteoporosis}} | ||
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{CZ}}, [[User:Raviteja Reddy Guddeti|Raviteja Guddeti,M.B.B.S.]][mailto:ravitheja.g@gmail.com] | {{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{CZ}}, [[User:Raviteja Reddy Guddeti|Raviteja Guddeti,M.B.B.S.]][mailto:ravitheja.g@gmail.com], {{EG}} | ||
==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
Osteoporosis may be caused by conditions that can lead to the disturbed balance between [[bone]] formation and [[bone]] resorption. Common causes of osteoporosis include [[aging]], [[menopause]], [[nutritional deficiency]] of [[calcium]] and/or [[vitamin D]], [[chronic renal failure]], immobility, [[hyperparathyroidism]], and chronic [[glucocorticoid]] abuse. | |||
==Causes== | ==Causes== | ||
===Common | |||
=== Life-Threatening Causes === | |||
Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent [[disability]] within 24 hours, if left untreated. There are no life-threatening causes of [[osteoporosis]]. However, complications resulting from untreated [[osteoporosis]] are common. | |||
===Common causes=== | |||
*[[Aging]] | *[[Aging]] | ||
*[[Alcoholism]] | *[[Alcoholism]] | ||
*[[Calcium deficiency]] | *[[Calcium deficiency]] | ||
*[[Chronic renal failure]] | *[[Chronic renal failure]] | ||
*[[Gonadal dysgenesis]] | *[[Gonadal dysgenesis]] | ||
*[[Hyperparathyroidism]] | *[[Hyperparathyroidism]] | ||
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*[[Primary hypoparathyroidism]] | *[[Primary hypoparathyroidism]] | ||
===Causes by | === Less common causes === | ||
{{Columns-list|3| | |||
*[[Abderhalden-Kaufmann-Lignac syndrome]] | |||
*[[Acromegaly]]<ref name="pmid22461828">{{cite journal |vauthors=Padova G, Borzì G, Incorvaia L, Siciliano G, Migliorino V, Vetri M, Tita P |title=Prevalence of osteoporosis and vertebral fractures in acromegalic patients |journal=Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=37–43 |year=2011 |pmid=22461828 |pmc=3279059 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Acroosteolysis neurogenic]] | |||
*[[Adrenal adenoma]] | |||
*[[Adrenal incidentaloma]] | |||
*[[Adrenocortical carcinoma]] | |||
*[[Albright's hereditary osteodystrophy]]<ref name="pmid19841552">{{cite journal |author=Goswami M, Verma M, Singh A, Grewal H, Kumar G |title=Albright hereditary osteodystrophy: a rare case report |journal=J Indian Soc Pedod Prev Dent |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=184–8 |year=2009 |pmid=19841552 |doi=10.4103/0970-4388.57101 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Alpha thalassemia]] | |||
*[[Andropause]]<ref name="pmid22400185">{{cite journal |vauthors=Krysiak R, Okopień B |title=[Pathogenesis and clinical presentation of andropause] |language=Polish |journal=Pol. Merkur. Lekarski |volume=32 |issue=187 |pages=70–3 |year=2012 |pmid=22400185 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Ankylosing spondylitis]] | |||
*[[Aromatase deficiency]] | |||
*[[Boyd-Stearns syndrome]] | |||
*[[Brown-Sequard Syndrome]]<ref name="pmid1431871">{{cite journal |vauthors=Saltzstein RJ, Hardin S, Hastings J |title=Osteoporosis in spinal cord injury: using an index of mobility and its relationship to bone density |journal=J Am Paraplegia Soc |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=232–4 |year=1992 |pmid=1431871 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Chromosome 1, deletion q21 q25]] | |||
*[[Chronic acidosis]] | |||
*[[Chronic Hepatitis]] | |||
*[[Chronic Liver Disease]] | |||
*[[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]] | |||
*[[Copper deficiency]]<ref name="pmid22025246">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nojiri H, Saita Y, Morikawa D, Kobayashi K, Tsuda C, Miyazaki T, Saito M, Marumo K, Yonezawa I, Kaneko K, Shirasawa T, Shimizu T |title=Cytoplasmic superoxide causes bone fragility owing to low-turnover osteoporosis and impaired collagen cross-linking |journal=J. Bone Miner. Res. |volume=26 |issue=11 |pages=2682–94 |year=2011 |pmid=22025246 |doi=10.1002/jbmr.489 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Crohn's disease]] | |||
*[[Cushing's disease]] | |||
*[[Cushing's syndrome]]<ref name="pmid22450549">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lekva T, Ueland T, Bøyum H, Evang JA, Godang K, Bollerslev J |title=TXNIP is highly regulated in bone biopsies from patients with endogenous Cushing's syndrome and related to bone turnover |journal=Eur. J. Endocrinol. |volume=166 |issue=6 |pages=1039–48 |year=2012 |pmid=22450549 |doi=10.1530/EJE-11-1082 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Cyproterone]]<ref name="pmid12877306">{{cite journal |vauthors=Grasswick LJ, Bradford JM |title=Osteoporosis associated with the treatment of paraphilias: a clinical review of seven case reports |journal=J. Forensic Sci. |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=849–55 |year=2003 |pmid=12877306 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11469484">{{cite journal |vauthors=Vasireddy S, Swinson DR |title=Male osteoporosis associated with longterm cyproterone treatment |journal=J. Rheumatol. |volume=28 |issue=7 |pages=1702–3 |year=2001 |pmid=11469484 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Cystathionine beta-synthase deficiency]] | |||
*[[Cystic Fibrosis]] | |||
*[[Depression]]<ref name="pmid17112423">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gold DT, Solimeo S |title=Osteoporosis and depression: a historical perspective |journal=Curr Osteoporos Rep |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=134–9 |year=2006 |pmid=17112423 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Diamond-Blackfan anemia]] | |||
*[[Dibasic aminoaciduria 2]] | |||
*[[Dyskeratosis Congenita|Dyskeratosis Congenital]]<ref name="pmid18028256">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pignolo RJ, Suda RK, McMillan EA, Shen J, Lee SH, Choi Y, Wright AC, Johnson FB |title=Defects in telomere maintenance molecules impair osteoblast differentiation and promote osteoporosis |journal=Aging Cell |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=23–31 |year=2008 |pmid=18028256 |pmc=2394673 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-9726.2007.00350.x |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Eccentrochondrodysplasia]] | |||
*[[Ehlers-Danlos syndrome]]- progeroid form | |||
*[[Ethanol]] | |||
*Excessive [[Dieting]] | |||
*[[Exemestane]] | |||
*[[Fabry's disease]] | |||
*[[Fanconi-Albertini-Zellweger syndrome]] | |||
*[[Fanconi-ichthyosis-dysmorphism]] | |||
*[[Female athlete triad]] | |||
*[[Flunisolide]] | |||
*[[Fluticasone]] (aerosol) | |||
*[[Functioning pancreatic endocrine tumor]] | |||
*[[Galactorrhoea]]-[[Hyperprolactinaemia]] | |||
*[[Generalized mastocytosis]]<ref name="pmid9129284">{{cite journal |author=Delsignore JL, Dvoretsky PM, Hicks DG, O'Keefe RJ, Rosier RN |title=Mastocytosis presenting as a skeletal disorder |journal=Iowa Orthop J |volume=16 |issue= |pages=126–34 |year=1996 |pmid=9129284 |pmc=2378151 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Geroderma osteodysplastica]]<ref name="pmid17014644">{{cite journal |author=Boente Mdel C, Asial RA, Winik BC |title=Geroderma osteodysplastica. Report of a new family |journal=Pediatr Dermatol |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=467–72 |year=2006 |pmid=17014644 |doi=10.1111/j.1525-1470.2006.00285.x |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Glycerol kinase]] deficiency | |||
*[[Gnathodiaphyseal dysplasia]]<ref name="pmid11547842">{{cite journal |vauthors=Riminucci M, Collins MT, Corsi A, Boyde A, Murphey MD, Wientroub S, Kuznetsov SA, Cherman N, Robey PG, Bianco P |title=Gnathodiaphyseal dysplasia: a syndrome of fibro-osseous lesions of jawbones, bone fragility, and long bone bowing |journal=J. Bone Miner. Res. |volume=16 |issue=9 |pages=1710–8 |year=2001 |pmid=11547842 |doi=10.1359/jbmr.2001.16.9.1710 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Haemochromatosis]] | |||
*[[Hajdu-Cheney syndrome]]<ref name="pmid22570971">{{cite journal |author=Nozaki T, Ihara K, Makimura M, Kinjo T, Hara T |title=A girl with Hajdu-Cheney syndrome and premature ovarian failure |journal=J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=25 |issue=1-2 |pages=171–3 |year=2012 |pmid=22570971 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Hashimoto's Thyroiditis]] | |||
*[[Hemoglobin H disease]] | |||
*[[Heparin]] | |||
*[[Homocystinuria]] | |||
*[[Hutchinson Gilford Syndrome]]<ref name="pmid16838330">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hennekam RC |title=Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome: review of the phenotype |journal=Am. J. Med. Genet. A |volume=140 |issue=23 |pages=2603–24 |year=2006 |pmid=16838330 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.31346 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Hyper IgE syndrome]] / [[Job syndrome]] | |||
*[[Hyperadrenalism]] | |||
*[[Hyperglycerolemia]] - infantile form | |||
*Hyperostosis corticalis deformans juvenilis | |||
*[[Hypertrichotic osteochondrodysplasia]] | |||
*[[Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism]] -- [[Syndactyly]] | |||
*[[Hyperprolactinemia]] | |||
*[[Infantile sialic acid storage disorder]] | |||
*Iridogoniodysgenesis and skeletal anomalies | |||
*[[Isotretinoin]] | |||
*Kaler-Garrity-Stern syndrome<ref name="pmid1415349">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kaler SG, Garrity AM, Stern HJ, Rosenbaum KN, Orrison BM, Marini JC, Bernardini I, Saal HM |title=New autosomal recessive syndrome of sparse hair, osteopenia, and mental retardation in Mennonite sisters |journal=Am. J. Med. Genet. |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=983–8 |year=1992 |pmid=1415349 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.1320430615 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Kallmann syndrome]] | |||
*[[Klinefelter syndrome]]<ref name="pmid21214887">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ferlin A, Schipilliti M, Foresta C |title=Bone density and risk of osteoporosis in Klinefelter syndrome |journal=Acta Paediatr. |volume=100 |issue=6 |pages=878–84 |year=2011 |pmid=21214887 |doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.2010.02138.x |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Kidney disease]] | |||
*[[Lactotroph adenoma]] | |||
*Larsen syndrome, recessive type<ref name="pmid9237505">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kurtoglu S, Dundar M, Hallaç IK, Uzüm K, Okumuş Y, Oktem T |title=Polycystic kidney disease, biliary dysgenesis in a patient with Larsen's syndrome |journal=Clin. Genet. |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=408–11 |year=1997 |pmid=9237505 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Leukemia]] | |||
*[[Lobstein disease]] | |||
*[[Lymphoma]] | |||
*[[Lysinuric protein intolerance]] | |||
*[[Maldigestion]] | |||
*Marie-Bamberg syndrome | |||
*[[Menkes Disease]]<ref name="pmid15876739">{{cite journal| author=Tanaka H| title=[Systemic bone diseases; clues for the pathogenetic mechanism of osteoporosis]. | journal=Clin Calcium | year= 2005 | volume= 15 | issue= 5 | pages= 776-82 | pmid=15876739 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15876739 }}</ref> | |||
*[[Menopause]] | |||
*Metaphyseal chondrodysplasia Spahr type | |||
*[[Metaphyseal dysplasia Pyle type]] | |||
*[[Methylmalonic acidemia]] | |||
*[[Morquio syndrome]] | |||
*[[Nodulosis-arthropathy-osteolysis syndrome]]<ref name="pmid19653001">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gok F, Crettol LM, Alanay Y, Hacihamdioglu B, Kocaoglu M, Bonafe L, Ozen S |title=Clinical and radiographic findings in two brothers affected with a novel mutation in matrix metalloproteinase 2 gene |journal=Eur. J. Pediatr. |volume=169 |issue=3 |pages=363–7 |year=2010 |pmid=19653001 |doi=10.1007/s00431-009-1028-7 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Oncogenic osteomalacia]] | |||
*[[Oophorectomy]] - bilateral | |||
*[[Orchidectomy]] | |||
*[[Osteochondrodysplatic dwarfism -- deafness -- retinitis pigmentosa]]<ref name="pmid2783003">{{cite journal |author=Khaldi F, Bennaceur B, Gharbi HA |title=[Familial osteochondrodysplatic dwarfism associated with deafness and tapeto-retinal heredo-degeneration] |language=French |journal=Arch. Fr. Pediatr. |volume=46 |issue=6 |pages=429–32 |year=1989 |pmid=2783003 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Osteogenesis imperfecta]] | |||
*Osteoporosis -- macrocephaly -- mental retardation -- blindness<ref name="pmid7265806">{{cite journal |vauthors=Heide T |title=[A syndrome of osteogenesis imperfecta, macrocephaly, wormian bones, frontal bossing, brachytelephalangy, hyperextensible joints, congenital blindness and oligophrenia in 3 sibs (author's transl)] |language=German |journal=Klin Padiatr |volume=193 |issue=4 |pages=334–40 |year=1981 |pmid=7265806 |doi=10.1055/s-2008-1034490 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[Osteoporosis -- oculocutaneous -- hypopigmentation syndrome]]<ref name="pmid8721572">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hernández A, Nazará Z, Reynoso MC, Sarralde A, Bobadilla L, Fragoso R |title=Generalized osteoporosis in a patient with oculocutaneous hypopigmentation syndrome (OOCHS), without cerebral defects. A new syndrome? |journal=Clin. Genet. |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=46–8 |year=1996 |pmid=8721572 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
*Osteoporosis-pseudoglioma syndrome<ref name="pmid8659519">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gong Y, Vikkula M, Boon L, Liu J, Beighton P, Ramesar R, Peltonen L, Somer H, Hirose T, Dallapiccola B, De Paepe A, Swoboda W, Zabel B, Superti-Furga A, Steinmann B, Brunner HG, Jans A, Boles RG, Adkins W, van den Boogaard MJ, Olsen BR, Warman ML |title=Osteoporosis-pseudoglioma syndrome, a disorder affecting skeletal strength and vision, is assigned to chromosome region 11q12-13 |journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=146–51 |year=1996 |pmid=8659519 |pmc=1915094 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
* [[Otospondylomegaepiphyseal dysplasia]] | |||
* [[Ovarian insufficiency due to FSH resistance]] | |||
* [[Ovarian insufficiency, familial]] | |||
* [[Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease, recessive, acute infantile]] | |||
* [[Pergolide]] | |||
* Pena Shokeir syndrome | |||
* Peroxisomal bifunctional enzyme deficiency | |||
* Pointer syndrome<ref name="pmid9028464">{{cite journal |vauthors=Huq AH, Braverman RM, Greenberg F, Bacino CA, Rimoin DL, Lachman RS, Levin ML |title=The Pointer syndrome: a new syndrome with skeletal abnormalities, camptodactyly, facial anomalies, and feeding difficulties |journal=Am. J. Med. Genet. |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=225–30 |year=1997 |pmid=9028464 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
* [[Postgastrectomy]] | |||
* [[Prader-Willi syndrome]] | |||
* [[Pregnancy]]<ref name="pmid22708337">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dytfeld J, Horst-Sikorska W |title=Pregnancy associated osteoporosis--a case report |journal=Ginekol. Pol. |volume=83 |issue=5 |pages=377–9 |year=2012 |pmid=22708337 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
* [[Premature aging]] | |||
* [[Primary biliary cirrhosis]] | |||
* [[Primary hypoparathyroidism]] | |||
* [[Prolidase deficiency]] | |||
* [[Protein deficiency]] | |||
* Pseudoprogeria syndrome | |||
* [[Reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome]] | |||
* [[Renal osteodystrophy]] | |||
* [[Sakati syndrome]] | |||
* [[Sarcoidosis]] | |||
* Schwartz-Jampel Syndrome | |||
* [[Sickle cell anemia]]<ref name="pmid22662000">{{cite journal |vauthors=Elshal MF, Bernawi AE, Al-Ghamdy MA, Jalal JA |title=The association of bone mineral density and parathyroid hormone with serum magnesium in adult patients with sickle-cell anaemia |journal=Arch Med Sci |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=270–6 |year=2012 |pmid=22662000 |pmc=3361039 |doi=10.5114/aoms.2012.28554 |url=}}</ref> | |||
* [[Shprintzen-Golberg craniosynostosis]] | |||
* [[Singleton-Merten syndrome]]<ref name="pmid175395">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gay BB, Kuhn JP |title=A syndrome of widened medullary cavities of bone, aortic calcification, abnormal dentition, and muscular weakness (the Singleton-Merten syndrome) |journal=Radiology |volume=118 |issue=2 |pages=389–95 |year=1976 |pmid=175395 |doi=10.1148/118.2.389 |url=}}</ref> | |||
* Snyder-Robinson syndrome<ref name="pmid19206178">{{cite journal |vauthors=Becerra-Solano LE, Butler J, Castañeda-Cisneros G, McCloskey DE, Wang X, Pegg AE, Schwartz CE, Sánchez-Corona J, García-Ortiz JE |title=A missense mutation, p.V132G, in the X-linked spermine synthase gene (SMS) causes Snyder-Robinson syndrome |journal=Am. J. Med. Genet. A |volume=149A |issue=3 |pages=328–35 |year=2009 |pmid=19206178 |pmc=2653108 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.32641 |url=}}</ref> | |||
* Spinocerebellar ataxia -- dysmorphism | |||
* Sponastrime dysplasia<ref name="pmid2771481">{{cite journal |author=Lachman RS, Stoss H, Spranger J |title=Sponastrime dysplasia. A radiologic-pathologic correlation |journal=Pediatr Radiol |volume=19 |issue=6-7 |pages=417–24 |year=1989 |pmid=2771481 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
* Spondyloepimetaphyseal dysplasia with multiple dislocations | |||
* Spondylometaphyseal dysplasia with dentinogenesis imperfecta | |||
* Spondylo-ocular syndrome<ref name="pmid12719077">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rudolph G, Kalpadakis P, Bettecken T, Lichtner P, Haritoglou C, Hergersberg M, Meitinger T, Schmidt H |title=Spondylo-ocular syndrome: a new entity with crystalline lens malformation, cataract, retinal detachment, osteoporosis, and platyspondyly |journal=Am. J. Ophthalmol. |volume=135 |issue=5 |pages=681–7 |year=2003 |pmid=12719077 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | |||
* [[Storm syndrome]] | |||
* [[Sub clinical hypothyroidism]] | |||
* Systemic infantile hyalinosis | |||
* Thick skull syndrome | |||
* Torg osteolysis syndrome<ref name="pmid20720557">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jeong SY, Kim BY, Kim HJ, Yang JA, Kim OH |title=A novel homozygous MMP2 mutation in a patient with Torg-Winchester syndrome |journal=J. Hum. Genet. |volume=55 |issue=11 |pages=764–6 |year=2010 |pmid=20720557 |doi=10.1038/jhg.2010.102 |url=}}</ref> | |||
* [[Tricho-hepato-enteric syndrome]] | |||
* [[Tuberous sclerosis]] | |||
* [[Turner's syndrome]] | |||
* [[Ulcerative colitis]] | |||
* [[Underweight]] | |||
* [[Urban rogers meyer syndrome]] | |||
* [[Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia]] | |||
* [[Werner syndrome]] | |||
* White Phosphorus poisoning | |||
* [[Wilson's Disease]] | |||
* [[Winchester syndrome]] | |||
* [[Wolcott-Rallison syndrome]]<ref name="pmid10932183">{{cite journal |vauthors=Delépine M, Nicolino M, Barrett T, Golamaully M, Lathrop GM, Julier C |title=EIF2AK3, encoding translation initiation factor 2-alpha kinase 3, is mutated in patients with Wolcott-Rallison syndrome |journal=Nat. Genet. |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=406–9 |year=2000 |pmid=10932183 |doi=10.1038/78085 |url=}}</ref> | |||
* Wolman syndrome | |||
* [[Xylosylprotein 4-beta-galactosyltransferase]] (XGPT) deficiency | |||
* [[Zero gravity]] | |||
}} | |||
===Causes by organ system=== | |||
{| style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1" | {| style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1" | ||
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|} | |} | ||
===Causes in | ===Causes in alphabetical order=== | ||
{{MultiCol}} | {{MultiCol}} | ||
*[[Abderhalden-Kaufmann-Lignac syndrome]] | *[[Abderhalden-Kaufmann-Lignac syndrome]] | ||
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*[[Down Syndrome]] | *[[Down Syndrome]] | ||
* | *Dyskeratosis Congenital<ref name="pmid18028256">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pignolo RJ, Suda RK, McMillan EA, Shen J, Lee SH, Choi Y, Wright AC, Johnson FB |title=Defects in telomere maintenance molecules impair osteoblast differentiation and promote osteoporosis |journal=Aging Cell |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=23–31 |year=2008 |pmid=18028256 |pmc=2394673 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-9726.2007.00350.x |url=}}</ref> | ||
*[[Eccentrochondrodysplasia]] | *[[Eccentrochondrodysplasia]] | ||
Line 289: | Line 482: | ||
*[[Hyperglycerolemia]] - infantile form | *[[Hyperglycerolemia]] - infantile form | ||
* | *Hyperostosis corticalis deformans juvenilis | ||
*[[Hyperparathyroidism]] | *[[Hyperparathyroidism]] | ||
Line 301: | Line 494: | ||
*[[Hypophosphatemic rickets]] | *[[Hypophosphatemic rickets]] | ||
*[[ | *Hypothalamic [[amenorrhea]]<ref name="pmid22144221">{{cite journal |author=Sowińska-Przepiera E, Andrysiak-Mamos E, Jarząbek-Bielecka G, Friebe Z, Syrenicz A |title=Effects of oestrogen deficiency on bone mineralisation in girls during "adolescent crisis" |journal=Endokrynol Pol |volume=62 |issue=6 |pages=538–46 |year=2011 |pmid=22144221 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
*[[Hyperprolactinemia]] | *[[Hyperprolactinemia]] | ||
Line 313: | Line 506: | ||
*[[Infantile sialic acid storage disorder]] | *[[Infantile sialic acid storage disorder]] | ||
* | *Iridogoniodysgenesis and skeletal anomalies | ||
*[[Isotretinoin]] | *[[Isotretinoin]] | ||
* | *Kaler-Garrity-Stern syndrome<ref name="pmid1415349">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kaler SG, Garrity AM, Stern HJ, Rosenbaum KN, Orrison BM, Marini JC, Bernardini I, Saal HM |title=New autosomal recessive syndrome of sparse hair, osteopenia, and mental retardation in Mennonite sisters |journal=Am. J. Med. Genet. |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=983–8 |year=1992 |pmid=1415349 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.1320430615 |url=}}</ref> | ||
*[[Kallmann syndrome]] | *[[Kallmann syndrome]] | ||
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*[[Kidney disease]] | *[[Kidney disease]] | ||
* | *Lack of exercise | ||
*[[Lactotroph adenoma]] | *[[Lactotroph adenoma]] | ||
* | *Larsen syndrome, recessive type<ref name="pmid9237505">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kurtoglu S, Dundar M, Hallaç IK, Uzüm K, Okumuş Y, Oktem T |title=Polycystic kidney disease, biliary dysgenesis in a patient with Larsen's syndrome |journal=Clin. Genet. |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=408–11 |year=1997 |pmid=9237505 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
*[[Leukemia]] | *[[Leukemia]] | ||
Line 343: | Line 536: | ||
*[[Marfan syndrome]] | *[[Marfan syndrome]] | ||
* | *Marie-Bamberg syndrome | ||
*[[Menkes Disease]]<ref name="pmid15876739">{{cite journal| author=Tanaka H| title=[Systemic bone diseases; clues for the pathogenetic mechanism of osteoporosis]. | journal=Clin Calcium | year= 2005 | volume= 15 | issue= 5 | pages= 776-82 | pmid=15876739 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15876739 }} </ref> | *[[Menkes Disease]]<ref name="pmid15876739">{{cite journal| author=Tanaka H| title=[Systemic bone diseases; clues for the pathogenetic mechanism of osteoporosis]. | journal=Clin Calcium | year= 2005 | volume= 15 | issue= 5 | pages= 776-82 | pmid=15876739 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15876739 }} </ref> | ||
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*[[Osteogenesis imperfecta]] | *[[Osteogenesis imperfecta]] | ||
* | *Osteoporosis -- macrocephaly -- mental retardation -- blindness<ref name="pmid7265806">{{cite journal |vauthors=Heide T |title=[A syndrome of osteogenesis imperfecta, macrocephaly, wormian bones, frontal bossing, brachytelephalangy, hyperextensible joints, congenital blindness and oligophrenia in 3 sibs (author's transl)] |language=German |journal=Klin Padiatr |volume=193 |issue=4 |pages=334–40 |year=1981 |pmid=7265806 |doi=10.1055/s-2008-1034490 |url=}}</ref> | ||
*[[Osteoporosis -- oculocutaneous -- hypopigmentation syndrome]]<ref name="pmid8721572">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hernández A, Nazará Z, Reynoso MC, Sarralde A, Bobadilla L, Fragoso R |title=Generalized osteoporosis in a patient with oculocutaneous hypopigmentation syndrome (OOCHS), without cerebral defects. A new syndrome? |journal=Clin. Genet. |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=46–8 |year=1996 |pmid=8721572 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | *[[Osteoporosis -- oculocutaneous -- hypopigmentation syndrome]]<ref name="pmid8721572">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hernández A, Nazará Z, Reynoso MC, Sarralde A, Bobadilla L, Fragoso R |title=Generalized osteoporosis in a patient with oculocutaneous hypopigmentation syndrome (OOCHS), without cerebral defects. A new syndrome? |journal=Clin. Genet. |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=46–8 |year=1996 |pmid=8721572 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
* | *Osteoporosis-pseudoglioma syndrome<ref name="pmid8659519">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gong Y, Vikkula M, Boon L, Liu J, Beighton P, Ramesar R, Peltonen L, Somer H, Hirose T, Dallapiccola B, De Paepe A, Swoboda W, Zabel B, Superti-Furga A, Steinmann B, Brunner HG, Jans A, Boles RG, Adkins W, van den Boogaard MJ, Olsen BR, Warman ML |title=Osteoporosis-pseudoglioma syndrome, a disorder affecting skeletal strength and vision, is assigned to chromosome region 11q12-13 |journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=146–51 |year=1996 |pmid=8659519 |pmc=1915094 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
{{ColBreak}} | {{ColBreak}} | ||
Line 395: | Line 588: | ||
*[[Pergolide]] | *[[Pergolide]] | ||
* | *Pena Shokeir syndrome | ||
* | *Peroxisomal bifunctional enzyme deficiency | ||
* | *Pointer syndrome<ref name="pmid9028464">{{cite journal |vauthors=Huq AH, Braverman RM, Greenberg F, Bacino CA, Rimoin DL, Lachman RS, Levin ML |title=The Pointer syndrome: a new syndrome with skeletal abnormalities, camptodactyly, facial anomalies, and feeding difficulties |journal=Am. J. Med. Genet. |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=225–30 |year=1997 |pmid=9028464 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
*[[Postgastrectomy]] | *[[Postgastrectomy]] | ||
Line 423: | Line 616: | ||
*[[Protein deficiency]] | *[[Protein deficiency]] | ||
* | *Pseudoprogeria syndrome | ||
*[[Reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome]] | *[[Reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome]] | ||
Line 435: | Line 628: | ||
*[[Sarcoidosis]] | *[[Sarcoidosis]] | ||
* | *Schwartz-Jampel Syndrome | ||
*[[Sickle cell anemia]]<ref name="pmid22662000">{{cite journal |vauthors=Elshal MF, Bernawi AE, Al-Ghamdy MA, Jalal JA |title=The association of bone mineral density and parathyroid hormone with serum magnesium in adult patients with sickle-cell anaemia |journal=Arch Med Sci |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=270–6 |year=2012 |pmid=22662000 |pmc=3361039 |doi=10.5114/aoms.2012.28554 |url=}}</ref> | *[[Sickle cell anemia]]<ref name="pmid22662000">{{cite journal |vauthors=Elshal MF, Bernawi AE, Al-Ghamdy MA, Jalal JA |title=The association of bone mineral density and parathyroid hormone with serum magnesium in adult patients with sickle-cell anaemia |journal=Arch Med Sci |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=270–6 |year=2012 |pmid=22662000 |pmc=3361039 |doi=10.5114/aoms.2012.28554 |url=}}</ref> | ||
Line 443: | Line 636: | ||
*[[Singleton-Merten syndrome]]<ref name="pmid175395">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gay BB, Kuhn JP |title=A syndrome of widened medullary cavities of bone, aortic calcification, abnormal dentition, and muscular weakness (the Singleton-Merten syndrome) |journal=Radiology |volume=118 |issue=2 |pages=389–95 |year=1976 |pmid=175395 |doi=10.1148/118.2.389 |url=}}</ref> | *[[Singleton-Merten syndrome]]<ref name="pmid175395">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gay BB, Kuhn JP |title=A syndrome of widened medullary cavities of bone, aortic calcification, abnormal dentition, and muscular weakness (the Singleton-Merten syndrome) |journal=Radiology |volume=118 |issue=2 |pages=389–95 |year=1976 |pmid=175395 |doi=10.1148/118.2.389 |url=}}</ref> | ||
* | *Snyder-Robinson syndrome<ref name="pmid19206178">{{cite journal |vauthors=Becerra-Solano LE, Butler J, Castañeda-Cisneros G, McCloskey DE, Wang X, Pegg AE, Schwartz CE, Sánchez-Corona J, García-Ortiz JE |title=A missense mutation, p.V132G, in the X-linked spermine synthase gene (SMS) causes Snyder-Robinson syndrome |journal=Am. J. Med. Genet. A |volume=149A |issue=3 |pages=328–35 |year=2009 |pmid=19206178 |pmc=2653108 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.32641 |url=}}</ref> | ||
* | *Spinocerebellar ataxia-dysmorphism | ||
* | *Sponastrime dysplasia<ref name="pmid2771481">{{cite journal |author=Lachman RS, Stoss H, Spranger J |title=Sponastrime dysplasia. A radiologic-pathologic correlation |journal=Pediatr Radiol |volume=19 |issue=6-7 |pages=417–24 |year=1989 |pmid=2771481 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
* | *Spondyloepimetaphyseal dysplasia with multiple dislocations | ||
* | *Spondylometaphyseal dysplasia with dentinogenesis imperfecta | ||
* | *Spondylo-ocular syndrome<ref name="pmid12719077">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rudolph G, Kalpadakis P, Bettecken T, Lichtner P, Haritoglou C, Hergersberg M, Meitinger T, Schmidt H |title=Spondylo-ocular syndrome: a new entity with crystalline lens malformation, cataract, retinal detachment, osteoporosis, and platyspondyly |journal=Am. J. Ophthalmol. |volume=135 |issue=5 |pages=681–7 |year=2003 |pmid=12719077 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
*[[Storm syndrome]] | *[[Storm syndrome]] | ||
Line 459: | Line 652: | ||
*[[Sub clinical hypothyroidism]] | *[[Sub clinical hypothyroidism]] | ||
* | *Systemic infantile hyalinosis | ||
* | *Thick skull syndrome | ||
* | *Torg osteolysis syndrome<ref name="pmid20720557">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jeong SY, Kim BY, Kim HJ, Yang JA, Kim OH |title=A novel homozygous MMP2 mutation in a patient with Torg-Winchester syndrome |journal=J. Hum. Genet. |volume=55 |issue=11 |pages=764–6 |year=2010 |pmid=20720557 |doi=10.1038/jhg.2010.102 |url=}}</ref> | ||
*[[Tricho-hepato-enteric syndrome]] | *[[Tricho-hepato-enteric syndrome]] | ||
Line 483: | Line 676: | ||
*[[Werner syndrome]] | *[[Werner syndrome]] | ||
* | *White Phosphorus poisoning | ||
*[[Wilson's Disease]] | *[[Wilson's Disease]] | ||
Line 491: | Line 684: | ||
*[[Wolcott-Rallison syndrome]]<ref name="pmid10932183">{{cite journal |vauthors=Delépine M, Nicolino M, Barrett T, Golamaully M, Lathrop GM, Julier C |title=EIF2AK3, encoding translation initiation factor 2-alpha kinase 3, is mutated in patients with Wolcott-Rallison syndrome |journal=Nat. Genet. |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=406–9 |year=2000 |pmid=10932183 |doi=10.1038/78085 |url=}}</ref> | *[[Wolcott-Rallison syndrome]]<ref name="pmid10932183">{{cite journal |vauthors=Delépine M, Nicolino M, Barrett T, Golamaully M, Lathrop GM, Julier C |title=EIF2AK3, encoding translation initiation factor 2-alpha kinase 3, is mutated in patients with Wolcott-Rallison syndrome |journal=Nat. Genet. |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=406–9 |year=2000 |pmid=10932183 |doi=10.1038/78085 |url=}}</ref> | ||
* | *Wolman syndrome | ||
*[[Xylosylprotein 4-beta-galactosyltransferase]] (XGPT) deficiency | *[[Xylosylprotein 4-beta-galactosyltransferase]] (XGPT) deficiency | ||
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==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist|2}} | {{Reflist|2}} | ||
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[[Category:Medicine]] | |||
[[Category:Endocrinology]] | [[Category:Endocrinology]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Up-To-Date]] | ||
Latest revision as of 23:28, 29 July 2020
Osteoporosis Microchapters |
Diagnosis |
---|
Treatment |
Medical Therapy |
Case Studies |
Osteoporosis causes On the Web |
American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Osteoporosis causes |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Cafer Zorkun, M.D., Ph.D. [2], Raviteja Guddeti,M.B.B.S.[3], Eiman Ghaffarpasand, M.D. [4]
Overview
Osteoporosis may be caused by conditions that can lead to the disturbed balance between bone formation and bone resorption. Common causes of osteoporosis include aging, menopause, nutritional deficiency of calcium and/or vitamin D, chronic renal failure, immobility, hyperparathyroidism, and chronic glucocorticoid abuse.
Causes
Life-Threatening Causes
Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours, if left untreated. There are no life-threatening causes of osteoporosis. However, complications resulting from untreated osteoporosis are common.
Common causes
- Aging
- Alcoholism
- Calcium deficiency
- Chronic renal failure
- Gonadal dysgenesis
- Hyperparathyroidism
- Hyperthyroidism
- Hypophosphatemic rickets
- Idiopathic
- Immobility
- Menopause
- Mixed connective tissue disease
- Paget's disease of bone
- Prednisolone
- Primary hypoparathyroidism
Less common causes
Causes by organ system
Causes in alphabetical order
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References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Padova G, Borzì G, Incorvaia L, Siciliano G, Migliorino V, Vetri M, Tita P (2011). "Prevalence of osteoporosis and vertebral fractures in acromegalic patients". Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab. 8 (3): 37–43. PMC 3279059. PMID 22461828.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Goswami M, Verma M, Singh A, Grewal H, Kumar G (2009). "Albright hereditary osteodystrophy: a rare case report". J Indian Soc Pedod Prev Dent. 27 (3): 184–8. doi:10.4103/0970-4388.57101. PMID 19841552.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Krysiak R, Okopień B (2012). "[Pathogenesis and clinical presentation of andropause]". Pol. Merkur. Lekarski (in Polish). 32 (187): 70–3. PMID 22400185.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Saltzstein RJ, Hardin S, Hastings J (1992). "Osteoporosis in spinal cord injury: using an index of mobility and its relationship to bone density". J Am Paraplegia Soc. 15 (4): 232–4. PMID 1431871.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Nojiri H, Saita Y, Morikawa D, Kobayashi K, Tsuda C, Miyazaki T, Saito M, Marumo K, Yonezawa I, Kaneko K, Shirasawa T, Shimizu T (2011). "Cytoplasmic superoxide causes bone fragility owing to low-turnover osteoporosis and impaired collagen cross-linking". J. Bone Miner. Res. 26 (11): 2682–94. doi:10.1002/jbmr.489. PMID 22025246.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Lekva T, Ueland T, Bøyum H, Evang JA, Godang K, Bollerslev J (2012). "TXNIP is highly regulated in bone biopsies from patients with endogenous Cushing's syndrome and related to bone turnover". Eur. J. Endocrinol. 166 (6): 1039–48. doi:10.1530/EJE-11-1082. PMID 22450549.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Grasswick LJ, Bradford JM (2003). "Osteoporosis associated with the treatment of paraphilias: a clinical review of seven case reports". J. Forensic Sci. 48 (4): 849–55. PMID 12877306.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Vasireddy S, Swinson DR (2001). "Male osteoporosis associated with longterm cyproterone treatment". J. Rheumatol. 28 (7): 1702–3. PMID 11469484.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Gold DT, Solimeo S (2006). "Osteoporosis and depression: a historical perspective". Curr Osteoporos Rep. 4 (4): 134–9. PMID 17112423.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Pignolo RJ, Suda RK, McMillan EA, Shen J, Lee SH, Choi Y, Wright AC, Johnson FB (2008). "Defects in telomere maintenance molecules impair osteoblast differentiation and promote osteoporosis". Aging Cell. 7 (1): 23–31. doi:10.1111/j.1474-9726.2007.00350.x. PMC 2394673. PMID 18028256.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Delsignore JL, Dvoretsky PM, Hicks DG, O'Keefe RJ, Rosier RN (1996). "Mastocytosis presenting as a skeletal disorder". Iowa Orthop J. 16: 126–34. PMC 2378151. PMID 9129284.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Boente Mdel C, Asial RA, Winik BC (2006). "Geroderma osteodysplastica. Report of a new family". Pediatr Dermatol. 23 (5): 467–72. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1470.2006.00285.x. PMID 17014644.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Riminucci M, Collins MT, Corsi A, Boyde A, Murphey MD, Wientroub S, Kuznetsov SA, Cherman N, Robey PG, Bianco P (2001). "Gnathodiaphyseal dysplasia: a syndrome of fibro-osseous lesions of jawbones, bone fragility, and long bone bowing". J. Bone Miner. Res. 16 (9): 1710–8. doi:10.1359/jbmr.2001.16.9.1710. PMID 11547842.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Nozaki T, Ihara K, Makimura M, Kinjo T, Hara T (2012). "A girl with Hajdu-Cheney syndrome and premature ovarian failure". J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. 25 (1–2): 171–3. PMID 22570971.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Hennekam RC (2006). "Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome: review of the phenotype". Am. J. Med. Genet. A. 140 (23): 2603–24. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.31346. PMID 16838330.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Kaler SG, Garrity AM, Stern HJ, Rosenbaum KN, Orrison BM, Marini JC, Bernardini I, Saal HM (1992). "New autosomal recessive syndrome of sparse hair, osteopenia, and mental retardation in Mennonite sisters". Am. J. Med. Genet. 43 (6): 983–8. doi:10.1002/ajmg.1320430615. PMID 1415349.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Ferlin A, Schipilliti M, Foresta C (2011). "Bone density and risk of osteoporosis in Klinefelter syndrome". Acta Paediatr. 100 (6): 878–84. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2010.02138.x. PMID 21214887.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Kurtoglu S, Dundar M, Hallaç IK, Uzüm K, Okumuş Y, Oktem T (1997). "Polycystic kidney disease, biliary dysgenesis in a patient with Larsen's syndrome". Clin. Genet. 51 (6): 408–11. PMID 9237505.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Tanaka H (2005). "[Systemic bone diseases; clues for the pathogenetic mechanism of osteoporosis]". Clin Calcium. 15 (5): 776–82. PMID 15876739.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Gok F, Crettol LM, Alanay Y, Hacihamdioglu B, Kocaoglu M, Bonafe L, Ozen S (2010). "Clinical and radiographic findings in two brothers affected with a novel mutation in matrix metalloproteinase 2 gene". Eur. J. Pediatr. 169 (3): 363–7. doi:10.1007/s00431-009-1028-7. PMID 19653001.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Khaldi F, Bennaceur B, Gharbi HA (1989). "[Familial osteochondrodysplatic dwarfism associated with deafness and tapeto-retinal heredo-degeneration]". Arch. Fr. Pediatr. (in French). 46 (6): 429–32. PMID 2783003.
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Heide T (1981). "[A syndrome of osteogenesis imperfecta, macrocephaly, wormian bones, frontal bossing, brachytelephalangy, hyperextensible joints, congenital blindness and oligophrenia in 3 sibs (author's transl)]". Klin Padiatr (in German). 193 (4): 334–40. doi:10.1055/s-2008-1034490. PMID 7265806.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Hernández A, Nazará Z, Reynoso MC, Sarralde A, Bobadilla L, Fragoso R (1996). "Generalized osteoporosis in a patient with oculocutaneous hypopigmentation syndrome (OOCHS), without cerebral defects. A new syndrome?". Clin. Genet. 49 (1): 46–8. PMID 8721572.
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Gong Y, Vikkula M, Boon L, Liu J, Beighton P, Ramesar R, Peltonen L, Somer H, Hirose T, Dallapiccola B, De Paepe A, Swoboda W, Zabel B, Superti-Furga A, Steinmann B, Brunner HG, Jans A, Boles RG, Adkins W, van den Boogaard MJ, Olsen BR, Warman ML (1996). "Osteoporosis-pseudoglioma syndrome, a disorder affecting skeletal strength and vision, is assigned to chromosome region 11q12-13". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 59 (1): 146–51. PMC 1915094. PMID 8659519.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 Huq AH, Braverman RM, Greenberg F, Bacino CA, Rimoin DL, Lachman RS, Levin ML (1997). "The Pointer syndrome: a new syndrome with skeletal abnormalities, camptodactyly, facial anomalies, and feeding difficulties". Am. J. Med. Genet. 68 (2): 225–30. PMID 9028464.
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 Dytfeld J, Horst-Sikorska W (2012). "Pregnancy associated osteoporosis--a case report". Ginekol. Pol. 83 (5): 377–9. PMID 22708337.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 Elshal MF, Bernawi AE, Al-Ghamdy MA, Jalal JA (2012). "The association of bone mineral density and parathyroid hormone with serum magnesium in adult patients with sickle-cell anaemia". Arch Med Sci. 8 (2): 270–6. doi:10.5114/aoms.2012.28554. PMC 3361039. PMID 22662000.
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 Gay BB, Kuhn JP (1976). "A syndrome of widened medullary cavities of bone, aortic calcification, abnormal dentition, and muscular weakness (the Singleton-Merten syndrome)". Radiology. 118 (2): 389–95. doi:10.1148/118.2.389. PMID 175395.
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 Becerra-Solano LE, Butler J, Castañeda-Cisneros G, McCloskey DE, Wang X, Pegg AE, Schwartz CE, Sánchez-Corona J, García-Ortiz JE (2009). "A missense mutation, p.V132G, in the X-linked spermine synthase gene (SMS) causes Snyder-Robinson syndrome". Am. J. Med. Genet. A. 149A (3): 328–35. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.32641. PMC 2653108. PMID 19206178.
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 Lachman RS, Stoss H, Spranger J (1989). "Sponastrime dysplasia. A radiologic-pathologic correlation". Pediatr Radiol. 19 (6–7): 417–24. PMID 2771481.
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 Rudolph G, Kalpadakis P, Bettecken T, Lichtner P, Haritoglou C, Hergersberg M, Meitinger T, Schmidt H (2003). "Spondylo-ocular syndrome: a new entity with crystalline lens malformation, cataract, retinal detachment, osteoporosis, and platyspondyly". Am. J. Ophthalmol. 135 (5): 681–7. PMID 12719077.
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 Jeong SY, Kim BY, Kim HJ, Yang JA, Kim OH (2010). "A novel homozygous MMP2 mutation in a patient with Torg-Winchester syndrome". J. Hum. Genet. 55 (11): 764–6. doi:10.1038/jhg.2010.102. PMID 20720557.
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 Delépine M, Nicolino M, Barrett T, Golamaully M, Lathrop GM, Julier C (2000). "EIF2AK3, encoding translation initiation factor 2-alpha kinase 3, is mutated in patients with Wolcott-Rallison syndrome". Nat. Genet. 25 (4): 406–9. doi:10.1038/78085. PMID 10932183.
- ↑ Legrand E, Hoppé E, Bouvard B, Audran M (2012). "[Osteoporosis in men]". Rev Prat (in French). 62 (2): 193–7. PMID 22408860.
- ↑ Parfitt AM (1976). "The actions of parathyroid hormone on bone: relation to bone remodeling and turnover, calcium homeostasis, and metabolic bone disease. Part IV of IV parts: The state of the bones in uremic hyperaparathyroidism--the mechanisms of skeletal resistance to PTH in renal failure and pseudohypoparathyroidism and the role of PTH in osteoporosis, osteopetrosis, and osteofluorosis". Metab. Clin. Exp. 25 (10): 1157–88. PMID 787723.
- ↑ Sowińska-Przepiera E, Andrysiak-Mamos E, Jarząbek-Bielecka G, Friebe Z, Syrenicz A (2011). "Effects of oestrogen deficiency on bone mineralisation in girls during "adolescent crisis"". Endokrynol Pol. 62 (6): 538–46. PMID 22144221.
- ↑ Olgaard K, Storm T, van Wowern N, Daugaard H, Egfjord M, Lewin E, Brandi L (1992). "Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis in the lumbar spine, forearm, and mandible of nephrotic patients: a double-blind study on the high-dose, long-term effects of prednisone versus deflazacort". Calcif. Tissue Int. 50 (6): 490–7. PMID 1525702.