Upper gastrointestinal bleeding resident survival guide

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Twinkle Singh, M.B.B.S. [2]

Definition

Upper gastrointestinal (GI) bleed refers to any bleeding originating from the gastrointestinal tract proximal to ligament of Treitz.

Causes

Life Threatening Causes

Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated. Severe upper GI bleed is a life-threatening condition and must be treated as such irrespective of the causes.

• Variceal bleed
• Perforated ulcer
• Aorto-enteric fistula
• Hemosuccus pancreaticus

Common Causes

• Angiodysplasia
• Duodenal ulcer
• Duodenitis
• Esophagitis
• Gastric ulcer
• Gastritis
• Mallory-Weiss tear
• Variceal bleed

Initial Management

Shown below is an algorithm summarizing the approach to upper GI bleed.

Characterize the symptoms: ❑ Blood in vomiting ❑ Coffee ground emesis ❑ Black and tarry stools ❑ Frank blood in stools ❑ Maroon colored stool ❑ Abdominal pain ❑ Altered mental status ❑ Dizziness ❑ Syncope ❑ Palpitations Inquire about the past medical history: ❑ Previous GI bleed ❑ Anticoagulants use ❑ NSAIDs use ❑ Alcohol intake ❑ Other comorbities

Examine the patient: Abdominal examination ❑ Abdominal tenderness ❑ Involuntary guarding ❑ Bowel sounds ❑ Hyperactive: Suggests UGIB ❑ Hypoactive: Suggests mesenteric ischemia or ileus ❑ Signs of liver failure ❑ Rectal exam to assess the stool color ❑ Guaiac test Vital Signs ❑ Blood pressure ❑ Pulse ❑ Signs of hypovolemia: Severity of blood loss Signs Mild to moderate Resting tachycardia 15% blood loss Orthostatic hypotension 40% blood loss Hypotension Shock Cold clammy extremities, Weak and thready pulse

Order tests: ❑ Blood type and cross-match ❑ CBC ❑ Platelet count ❑ Prothrombin time and INR ❑ Liver enzymes ❑ BUN ❑ Creatinine ❑ Electrolytes ❑ Order EKG and cardiac enzymes to rule out myocardial infarction in elderly patients

Initiate initial supportive measures: ❑ Ensure normal breathing and clear airway ❑ Consider intubation in patients with ongoing massive bleeding ❑ Assess the hemodynamic status ❑ Cardiac monitoring ❑ Assess mental status

Risk assessment

Unstable patient and/or massive active bleeding and/or altered mental status

Stable patient

Resuscitate the patient: ❑ Keep patient NPO ❑ Insert 2 large bore IV lines ❑ Administer supplemental oxygen ❑ Ensure fluid resuscitation ❑ Administer 500 ml of NS during first 30 min and simultaneously send blood sample for cross-matching ❑ Consider increasing fluid administration if blood pressure fails to rise ❑ Consider blood transfusion in patients with Hb < 7 g/dL ❑ Admit to ICUand monitor: ❑ Pulse oximetry ❑ Urine output ❑ Request a surgical consult

❑ Ensure fluid resuscitation Asess Blatchford score (Score is zero if following criteria are fulfilled) ❑ Urea Nitrogen < 18.2 mg/dl ❑ Hemoglobin < 13.2 g/dL (12 g/dL for women) ❑ Systolic blood pressure > 110 mmHg ❑ Pulse <100/min ❑ Absence of melena, cardiac failure, syncope and liver disease

> 0

0

❑ Discharge from emergency room without endoscopy

❑ Prepare patient for early endoscopy

Endoscopic Management

Medications before endoscopy: ❑ Administer IV infusion of erythromycin (250 mg 30 minutes prior to the endoscopy) ❑ Consider IV PPI therapy (80 mg bolus followed by 8 mg/hour infusion)

EGD ❑ Within 24 hours for hemodynamically unstable patients, OR ❑ ASAP for stable patients

Variceal bleed Click here for the detailed management

Non variceal bleed

Assess stigmata of recent hemorrhage

❑ Active spurting ❑ Oozing blood ❑ Non-bleeding visible vessel

Adherent Clot

❑ Clean base ulcer ❑ Flat pigmented spot

❑ Endoscopic therapy: ❑ Thermal therapy with bipolar electrocoagulation PLUS sclerosant injection (e.g absolute alcohol) ❑ Epinephrine injection PLUS another modality (thermal therapy or sclerotherapy or clips) ❑ Clips ❑IV PPI therapy with 80 mg bolus followed by 8 mg/hr infusion for 72 hours

❑ Consider endoscopic therapy in patients with clot resistant to irrigation ❑ IV PPI therapy with 80 mg bolus followed by 8 mg/hr infusion for 72 hours

❑ No endoscopic therapy ❑ Oral PPI therapy (once daily) ❑ Regular diet after endoscopy ❑ Discharge hemodynamically stable patients who have no comorbdities

❑ Hospital admission for 3 days ❑ Clear liquids can be fed soon after endoscopy ❑ Discharge after 3 days if no re-bleeding occurs

If re-bleeding occurs clinically

Repeat endoscopy with hemostatic therapy

Bleeding could not be controlled?

Bleeding controlled

Surgery Arterial embolization

IV PPI therapy for 72 hours Oral therapy thereafter

Above algorithm is adapted from guidelines issued by American College of Gastroenterology (ACG) and International consensus.

Long Term Prevention of Recurrent Ulcer Bleed

Patient treated for UGIB

Approach to long term treatment based on different etiologies

H. Pylori

NSAIDs

Aspirin

Idiopathic

❑ Test for H. Pylori * Endoscopic biopsy based test for H. Pylori * If biopsy is negative, confirm with a non endoscopic H. Pylori test

Is patient talking NSAIDs?

Is patient taking aspirin?

Continue daily PPI therapy

Treat with H. Pylori eradication therapy

Assess the indication of aspirin

Document cure of H. Pylori at > 1 month after eradication therapy is stopped with following tests: * Endoscopy (if done for some other reason) * Urea breath test * Stool antigen test

No

Yes

Aspirin is being given for an established cardiovascular disease (for secondary prevention)?

Aspirin is being given for primary prevention?

Stop PPI therapy

❑ Stop NSAIDs. ❑ If NSAIDs have to be resumed, use celecoxib plus PPI therapy. ❑ In patients on antithrombotics, continue PPI therapy

❑ Resume aspirin as soon as possible ❑ Start PPI therapy

Stop aspirin

Above algorithm is adapted from guidelines issued by American College of Gastroenterology (ACG).

Do's

• Assess the hemodynamic status immediately upon presentation and start the appropriate resuscitation measures.
• Rockall score (ranging from 0-7) can be used for risk assessment. Parameters included in rockall score are systolic blood pressure, pulse, age and comorbidities.
• Administer IV proton pump inhibitors (PPI) therapy before endoscopy to decrease the number of patients with high risk of hemorrhage and patients requiring endoscopic therapy. However, PPI therapy does not affect the outcomes such as recurrent bleeding, surgery or death. If endoscopy is delayed for some reason, IV PPI therapy is indicated to decrease further bleeding.
• Early endoscopy is strongly recommended, however patients with blood urea nitrogen<18.2 mg/dl, Hb>13.0 mg/dl in men, Hb>12.0 mg/dl in women, systolic blood pressure>110 mmHg, pulse<100beats per minute, absence of melena, syncope, cardiac failure and liver disease can be discharged without endoscopy.
• Considered endoscopy among patients with upper GI bleed within 24 hours of presentation, however in patients with tachycardia, hypotension, bloody emesis should be done with in 12 hrs after presentation.
• For actively bleeding patents, thermal therapy or epinephrin therapy plus a second modality endoscopic therapy are recommended over clips and sclerosant therapy alone.
• For active bleeding on endoscopy, thermal therapy or epinephrine plus a second modality are preferred over clips or sclerosant alone.
• As for the epinephrine therapy, dilute epinephrine (1:10,000 or 1:20,000 in saline) and inject it in doses of 0.5-2 ml in and around the bleeding site. Continue the injections until the active bleeding stops.

Dont's

• Do not administer nasogastric lavage in patients with upper GI bleed for diagnosis, prognostic evaluation, visualization or therapeutic effect.
• Do not administer epinephrine therapy alone. Always combine epinephrine therapy with a second agent.
• Do not request a repeat endoscopy for patients who have no evidence of bleeding after the endoscopic therapy.

References

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