Systemic lupus erythematosus historical perspective: Difference between revisions

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{{Systemic lupus erythematosus}}
{{Systemic lupus erythematosus}}


{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{RT}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}}{{MIR}}


==Overview==
==Overview==
: [Disease name] was first discovered by [scientist] in [year] during/following [event].
The word "[[Systemic lupus erythematosus|lupus]]" means wolf in Latin, as the destructive injuries SLE causes brought to mind wolf bites. The history of [[lupus erythematosus]] can be divided into three periods: classical, neoclassical, and modern. The classical period mostly refers to ancient history, when there was no exact definition of the [[disease]]. During the neoclassical [[lupus]] era, scientists investigated the manifestations of lupus and worked to define the disease's action. Modern history is mostly focused on a [[Microscopic|microscopical]] understanding of the [[disease]] and [[pathogenesis]] of [[SLE]].
: OR
: [Disease name] was first described by [scientist] in [year].
:: Additional Sentence 1: In [year], the first [event] occurred/was first reported following/during [event].
:: Additional Sentence 2: In [year], the first [discovery] was developed by [scientist] to treat/diagnose [disease name].
:: Additional Sentence 3: There have been several outbreaks of [disease] which are summarized below.
:: Additional Sentence 4: [Disease name] was first described in [year] by [scientist].
:: Additional Sentence 5: [Risk factor or cause] was first discovered to be associated with [disease] in [year].
:: Additional Sentence 6: In [year], [scientist] was the first to discover the association between [risk factor] and development of [disease].
:: Additional Sentence 7: In [year], [gene] mutations were first identified in the pathogenesis of [disease].
 
==== The word lupus ====
* means ''wolf'' in Latin, as the destructive injuries the disease caused brought to mind the bites of this animal.<sup>[[null 1],[null 2]]</sup> The earliest usage of the term ''lupus'' in the English literature is in the 10<sup>th</sup> century biography of St. Martin, written in 963 AD. However, Hippocrates is generally considered the first to have described cutaneous ulceration; calling it herpes esthiomenos, which means, gnawing dermatosis.<sup>[[null 3]]</sup> Several authorities have suggested that lupus was included under this name. Rogerius Frugardi (1230 ad) used the term lupus to describe erosive facial lesions and Giovanni Manardi (1530 ad) used the same to denote boils and ulceration of the lower extremity.<sup>[[null 1],[null 3]]</sup> In the superstitious Middle Ages, the grotesque appearance of some lupus sufferers brought the myth of werewolves to the minds of people. These were feared to be human beings who had strange powers to transform themselves into animals.<sup>[[null 1]]</sup> It is obvious that fearful fantasy borders meaningful linguistics in such imagery. Local language use, beliefs, and related pathologic conditions that may have coexisted during the specific time have to be considered carefully in the study of the history of any disease. Rudolph Virchow, after an extensive review of the works of the Medieval and Renaissance periods, concluded that any process involving ulceration or necrosis of the lower limbs or face was loosely labeled lupus before the mid-19th century.<sup>[[null 4]]</sup>
Robert Willan (1757-1808), a British dermatologist, described destructive lesions of the face and nose under the heading of lupus. Cutaneous tuberculosis or lupus vulgaris was included under this classification and was named lupus willani after him. Thomas Bateman,<sup>[[null 5]]</sup> who was Willan's student, completed his work after his untimely death. The first clear description of lupus erythematosus is credited to Laurent Theodore Biett of the Paris School of Dermatology, who called it erythema centrifugum.<sup>[[null 6]]</sup> His student, Pierre Louis Alphee Cazenave, published Biett's work and coined the term lupus erythematosus in 1833. Cazenave classically described lupus as a rare condition, which appears most frequently in young females who are otherwise healthy, attacking the face chiefly. Round red patches, slightly elevated, about the size of a shilling, gradually increase in size and sometimes spread over the greater part of the face. The edges of the patches are prominent, and the center, which retains its natural color, is depressed. There is heat and redness but no pain or itching. It is essentially a chronic affection though its appearance would indicate otherwise.<sup>[[null 7]]</sup> It is obvious that the disease being described by Cazenave<sup>[[null 7]]</sup> is discoid lupus. In 1866, Ferdinand von Hebra<sup>[[null 8]]</sup> used the metaphor of a butterfly to describe the classic malar rash. He had initially named the condition, seborrhea congestiva.
 
The next stage in our understanding of this disease was largely due to the work of Moriz Kaposi and the Vienna School of Medicine. In 1872, Kaposi<sup>[[null 9]]</sup>first described the systemic signs of the disorder. These included fever, weight loss, lymphadenopathy, anemia, and arthritis. The name discoidal lupus, as pertaining to the exclusively cutaneous form of the disease, is credited to Kaposi. Kaposi and Cazenave clearly distinguished lupus erythematosus from lupus vulgaris or cutaneous tuberculosis, although there was a lot of confusion around that time due to the coexistence of both diseases in patients. In the same five years that Kaposi diagnosed 22 cases of discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE), 279 cases of lupus vulgaris were seen in his department, and, in fact, one of Kaposi's patients with DLE died as a result of pulmonary tuberculosis. Kaposi maintained that DLE had no relation whatsoever to tuberculosis, but this was disputed until the first part of the 20th century, when extensive pathologic studies dispelled this myth.<sup>[[null 6]]</sup>
 
Sir William Osler<sup>[[null 10]]</sup> coined the term systemic lupus erythematosus, which included his own recognition of cardiac, pulmonary, and renal problems in some patients, and observations of the cutaneous manifestations of lupus. Osler observed 29 patients from 1894 to 1903 who presented with erythema as visceral injuries. Only two of these patients clearly had lupus erythematosus. One was a 15-year-old girl with a photosensitive malar rash, joint pain, pleuritis, fever, and nephritis. The other was a 24-year-old woman who also had a malar rash, in addition to fever, chills, lymphadenopathy, and pulmonary involvement.<sup>[[null 10]]</sup> Jonathan Hutchinson<sup>[[null 11],[null 12]]</sup> described the photosensitive nature of the malar rash, and Sequira and Balean described acroasphyxia, or Raynaud phenomenon, and lupus nephritis in 1902.<sup>[[null 6]]</sup>Jadassohn's<sup>[[null 13]]</sup> exhaustive review of discoid and systemic lupus in 1904 contributed greatly to our understanding of this disease. The descriptions of pulmonary involvement in lupus by Alfred Kraus and Carl Bohac in 1908, and of noninfectious endocarditis by Emanuel Libman and Benjamin Sacks<sup>[[null 14]]</sup> in 1923, are significant contributions to our current understanding of the disease. Initially, the presence of cutaneous involvement was considered mandatory to the diagnosis of lupus erythematosus. However, George Belote and H.S. Ratner confirmed that the endocarditis of Libman-Sacks was a manifestation of the disease even without cutaneous involvement. Paul Klemperer, George Baehr, and A.D. Pollack<sup>[[null 15]]</sup> described wire loop nephritis in 1935.
 
The modern period of our understanding of this disease began in 1948, when Mayo Clinic hematologist Malcolm Hargraves<sup>[[null 16]]</sup> discovered the LE cell. Serum from patients with lupus erythematosus was added to bone marrow preparations from normal subjects. When compared with control preparations, this induced the formation of clumps of polymorphonuclear leukocytes around amorphous masses of nuclear material. In 1954, Miescher and Fauconnet observed that absorption of lupus serum with nuclei prevented its ability to induce the LE cell phenomenon, suggesting that a globulin in the serum was reacting with, or destroying, the nuclei. This was followed by the demonstration by George Friou<sup>[[null 17]]</sup> in 1958, that the substance in the serum of patients with lupus erythematosus that reacted to the nuclei of cells was gamma globulin, and the target in the nucleus was DNA complexed to histones. He called it the antinuclear factor and further described the indirect immunoflourescence test to detect antinuclear antibodies. These observations in the late 1950s clearly demonstrated an autoimmune pathologic process underlying lupus erythematosus and paved the way for a new area of research. Autoantibodies like nuclear ribonucleoprotein (nRNP), Sm, Ro, La, and anticardiolipin antibodies are useful in describing clinical subsets and understanding the pathogenesis of lupus and other autoimmune diseases. While trying to develop a serologic test for syphilis, Wasserman<sup>[[null 18]]</sup> in 1906 first described a complement-fixing antibody that reacted with extracts from bovine hearts. In 1941, the relevant antigen was identified as cardiolipin,<sup>[[null 19]]</sup> which became the basis for the Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) test for syphilis. Screening for syphilis lead to the observation that many patients with systemic lupus erythematosus had a positive VDRL test, without any other clinical or serologic evidence of syphilis.<sup>[[null 20]]</sup> Moore and Lutz<sup>[[null 21]]</sup> reported the results of an investigation into the phenomenon of biologic false positivity in 1955. Lupus erythematosus developed in 7% of 148 subjects with false positive tests for chronic syphilis and a further 30% had symptoms consistent with collagen disease.
 
Leonardt, Arnett, and Schulman<sup>[[null 22]]</sup> at Johns Hopkins University described the familial aggregation of lupus and concordance in monozygotic twins. The discovery of a lethal kidney disease in the New Zealand Brown White hybrid mouse in 1959 at Otago Medical School in New Zealand was another important breakthrough.<sup>[[null 23]]</sup> This murine model has provided many insights into the mechanisms of immunologic tolerance, imunopathogenesis of autoantibody formation, development of glomerulonephritis, and the evaluation of newer therapeutic agents in lupus erythematosus. Drug-induced lupus erythematosus was first described in 1954 at the Cleveland Clinic with the antihypertensive, hydralazine. The first classification criteria for systemic lupus erythematosus were established in 1971 and required 4 of 14 criteria. In 1982, the criteria were revised by the American College of Rheumatology because of advances in serologic testing (ANA and anti-dsDNA) and improved biostatistical techniques.
# 6348430
# 7020464
# PMCID: PMC3437177
# PMCID: PMC2783313
# Smith CD, Cyr M. The history of lupus erythematosus, from Hippocrates to Osler. ''Rheum Dis Clin North Am'' 1988;14:1-14.
# Cazenave PLA, Schedel HE. ''Manual of the Diseases of the Skin.'' Burgess (trans). London, Henry Renshaw, 1852.
# Hebra F. ''On Diseases of the Skin including the Exanthemata, Vol 1.'' Adams F (trans). London, The New Sydenham Society 1866.
# Kaposi M. Lupus vulgaris. In: Hebra, F Kaposi M (eds). ''On Diseases of the Skin including the Exanthemata, Vol IV.'' Tay W (trans). London, The New Sydenham Society, 1875.
# Osler W. On the visceral complications of erythema exudativum multiforme. ''Am J Med Sci'' 1895;110:629-646.
# Hutchinson J. Lupus erythematosus. ''Med Times Gaz'' 1879;1:1-3.
# Hutchinson J. On lupus and its treatment. ''Br Med J'' 1880;1:650-652.
# Jadassohn J. Lupus erythematodes. In: Mracek F, editor. ''Handbuch der Hautkrankheiten.'' Wein, Alfred Holder, 1904, pp 298-404l.
# Libman E, Sacks B. A hitherto undescribed form of valvular and mural endocarditis. ''Arch Intern Med'' 1924;33:701.
# Klemperer P, Pollack A, Baehr G. Diffuse collagen disease: acute disseminated lupus erythematosus and diffuse scleroderma. ''JAMA'' 1984;251:1593-1594.
# Hargraves MM. Discovery of the LE cell and its morphology. ''Mayo Clin Proc'' 1969;44:579-599.
# Friou GJ. Antinuclear Antibodies: diagnostic significance and methods. ''Arthritis Rheum'' 1967;10:151-159.
# Wasserman A, Neisser A, Bruck C. Eine serodiagnosticsche reaktion bei syphilis. ''Dtsch Med Wochenschr'' 1906;32:745-746.
# Pangborn MC. A new serologically active phospholipid from beef heart. ''Proc Soc Exp Biol Med'' 1941;48:484-486.
# Haserick JR, Long R. Systemic lupus erythematosus preceded by false-positive serologic test for syphilis: presentation of five cases. ''Ann Intern Med'' 1952;37:559-565.
# Moore JE, Lutz WB. The natural history of systemic lupus erythematosus: an approach to its study through chronic biological false positive reactions. ''J Chron Dis'' 1955;2:297-316.
# Arnett FC, Shulman LE. Studies in familial systemic lupus erythematosus. ''Medicine (Baltimore)'' 1976;55:313-322.
# Bielschowsky M, Helyer BJ, Howie JB. Spontaneous hemolytic anemia in mice of the NZB/BL strain. ''Proc Univ Otago Med School'' 1959;37:9.
 
Ferdinand von Hebra first described a typical skin lesion with aggressive and tissue destructive characteristics in 1845 [1], which — due to its appearance — was named by Pierre Louis Cazanave “lupus [latin ''wolf''] erythematosus” in 1851 [2]. Although the term “lupus” was not confined to a single disorder at that time [3], the peculiarity of the skin lesion was fully recognized, resulting in a variety of descriptive terms (e.g., “butterfly rash” [4]) which are in use until today. It was, however, not until Moritz Kaposi succeeded Hebra to the Chair of the Department of Dermatology at the Vienna University Hospital that the systemic nature of lupus was recognized: Kaposi reported in 1872 that certain patients suffering from lupus presented with a syndrome consisting of fever. arthritis, lymphadenopathy, and anemia [5]. It was this report which led to a clear separation of systemic or disseminated lupus erythemntosus (SLE) from the forms definitely limited to the skin. Publications by Jadassohn from Vienna [6] and by William Osler from Baltimore, Maryland, who discussed visceral complications of “erythema exsudativum multiforme” [7] — which rather would be recognized as SLE today [8] — gave additional evidence for the disseminated nature of the disease, while reports on idiopathic thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura [9], endocarditis [10], and changes in renal histology [11], culminating in the classic study by Klemperer, Pollack, and Baehr on the pathomorphology of SLE in different organs [12], illustrated its puzzling variety of clinical manifestations.
# 1.  Hebra F (1845) Versuch einer auf pathologischer Anatomie gegründeten Einteilung der Hautkrankheiten. K.k. Gesellschaft der Ärzte in Wien 1: 43–52
# 2.  Cazanave PL, Chausit M (1851) Annales des maladies de la peau et de la syphilis, conference du 4 Juin 1851, Paris. 3: 297–299
# 3.  Holubar K (1980) Terminology and iconography of lupus erythematosus. Am J Dermatopathol. 2: 239–242PubMedCrossRef
# 4.  Hebra F (1846) Bericht über die Leistungen in der Dermatologie. In: Constatt, Eisenmann (eds) Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte der gesamten Medizin, 1845. Enke, Erlangen
# 5.  Kaposi M (1872) Neue Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Lupus erythematosus. Arch Dermatol and Syphilol 4: 36–78CrossRef
# 6.  Jadassohn J (1940) Handbuch der Hautkrankheiten. Mraeck, Berlin
# 7.  Osler W (1900) The visceral lesions of the erythema group of diseases. Br J Dermatol 12: 227–245
# 8.  Talbott J (1974) Historical background of discoid and systemic lupus erythematosus. In: Duboid EL (ed) Lupus erythematosus, 2nd ed. University of Southern California Press, Los Angeles
# 9.  Gitlow S, Goldmark C (1939) Generalized capillary and arteriolar thrombosis: report of two cases with a discussion of the literature. Ann Intern Med 13: 1046–1067
# 10.  Libman E, Sacks B (1924) A hitherto undescribed form of valvular and mural endocarditis. Arch Intern Med 33: 701–737
# 11.  Keith N, Rowntree L (1922) Study of renal complications of disseminated SLE: a report of 4 cases. Trans Assoc Am Physicians 37: 487–502
# 12.  Klemperer P, Pollack A, Baehr G (1941) Pathology of disseminated lupus erythematosus. Arch Pathol Lab Med 32: 569–631
 
The word lupus was first used to describe skin lesions after the fall of the Roman Empire in medieval times. Why the image of the wolf was evoked to describe certain skin lesions is not definitively known, but the lesions having the appearance of having been caused by the gnawing of a wolf as well as the destruction of adjacent skin have been suggested (9). One of the first written references is from 916 A.D. in the description of the healing of Eraclius, Bishop of Liege, at the shrine of St. Martin in Tours (see 8). Later Virchow (1821–1902) would conclude that the meaning of lupus to medieval writers was not clear.
 
At the beginning of the 19th century, Robert Wilan (1757–1812) of London and his student William Bateman (1778–1821) published his ''Manual of Skin Diseases'', which provided an orderly classification of skin diseases based on appearance. The term lupus was reserved for diseases with destructive or ulcerative characteristics that appeared on the face (20 and see 8). This system thus included what would later be called lupus vulgaris and lupus erythematosus. Distinguishing these entities awaited Pierre Cazenave (1795–1877) and Henri Schedel (1804–1856), in Paris at the Saint Louis Hospital for skin diseases (7), who reported their own work as well as that of Laurent Biett (1781–1840), their mentor and a student of Bateman (8). In several articles and especially in the textbook ''Abrégé Pratique Des Maladies De La Peau'', Cazenave and Schedel divided lupus into three types based on the type of visible destruction (7,8). In 1833, Cazenave reported Biett’s work in what is now regarded as the first description of what would become known as lupus erythematosus (7,21).
 
Ferdinand von Hebra (1816–1880) was in charge of a skin disease clinic at the General Hospital of Vienna beginning in 1841. By 1846 he had described 2 lesions in lupus, 1 consisting of round discs and another of confluent smaller lesions (22, also see 8 and 23). He also invoked the phrase ‘butterfly rash’ to describe lupus (24). Meanwhile, Cazenave and Schedel continued to publish editions of their textbook, each subsequent version with an expanded description of lupus. In the fourth edition of 1847, the term lupus erythemateux was first used (7,21); thus, dividing lupus into lupus erythemateux, tuberculous lupus, ulcerating lupus and lupus with hypertrophy (7,8,21). From this point on tubercular skin disease of the face (lupus vulgaris) and lupus erythematosus were clearly distinguished from one another (8,25). In 1856, Hebra published the first illustrations and used the Latinized version, namely, lupus erythematosus, in ''Altas of Skin Diseases'' (8,23,22). Jonathon Hutchinson (1828–1913), perhaps more noted for his contributions to syphilogy, first used the simile of a ‘bat wing’ to describe lupus erythematosus and also first noted photosensitivity (26 and quoted in 8).
 
== Discovery ==
== Discovery ==
The word "[[Systemic lupus erythematosus|lupus]]" means wolf in Latin, as the destructive injuries SLE causes brought to mind wolf bites. The history of [[lupus erythematosus]] can be divided into three periods: classical, neoclassical, and modern.<ref name="pmid63484303">{{cite journal |vauthors=Blotzer JW |title=Systemic lupus erythematosus I: historical aspects |journal=Md State Med J |volume=32 |issue=6 |pages=439–41 |year=1983 |pmid=6348430 |doi= |url=}}</ref> The classical period mostly refers to ancient history, when there was no exact definition of the [[disease]]. During the neoclassical [[lupus]] era, scientists investigated the manifestations of lupus and worked to define the disease's action. Modern history is mostly focused on a [[Microscopic|microscopical]] understanding of the [[disease]] and [[pathogenesis]] of [[SLE]].


== Landmark Events in the Development of Treatment Strategies ==
=== Classical History ===
 
* In ancient times, it was believed that lupus patients could turn into wolves, especially when exposed to sunlight. This false belief was later found to be related to lupus [[photosensitivity]].<ref name="pmid7020464">{{cite journal |vauthors=Holubar K |title=Terminology and iconography of lupus erythematosus. A historical vignette |journal=Am J Dermatopathol |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=239–42 |year=1980 |pmid=7020464 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
== Impact on Cultural History ==
* Hippocrates was the first to use the phrase "herpes esthiomenos," which was a definition for [[lupus]] [[lesions]]. Thus, Hippocrates is considered the first to have described cutaneous [[ulceration]] of the [[disease]].<ref name="pmid23008531">{{cite journal |vauthors=Karrar A, Ai-Dalaan A |title=Systemic lupus erythematosus for general practitioners: a literature review |journal=J Family Community Med |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=19–29 |year=1994 |pmid=23008531 |pmc=3437177 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid3041483">{{cite journal |vauthors=Smith CD, Cyr M |title=The history of lupus erythematosus. From Hippocrates to Osler |journal=Rheum. Dis. Clin. North Am. |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |year=1988 |pmid=3041483 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
 
== Famous Cases ==
 
 
==Historical Perspective==
===Etymology===
 
There are several explanations ventured for the term '''lupus erythematosus'''. Lupus is [[Latin]] for wolf, and 'erythro' is derived from ερυθρός{{Polytonic|}}, Greek for "red." All explanations originate with the reddish, butterfly-shaped [[malar rash]] that the disease classically exhibits across the nose and cheeks.  
# In various accounts, some doctors thought the rash resembled the pattern of fur on a wolf's face.
# In other accounts doctors thought that the rash, which was often more severe in earlier centuries, created lesions that resembled wolf bites or scratches.
# Stranger still is the account that the term "Lupus" didn't come from Latin at all, but from the term for a French style of mask which women reportedly wore to conceal the rash on their faces. The mask is called a "loup", French for "Wolf"
# Another common explanation for the term is that the disease's course involves repeated attacks like those of a voracious predator, leaving behind the red blotches.


===History===
=== Neoclassical History ===
Medical historians have theorized people with [[porphyria]]s (a disease that shares many symptoms with Lupus) generated folklore stories of vampires and werewolves due to the photosensitivity, scarring, hair growth and porphyrin brownish-red stained teeth in severe recessive forms of porphyria or combinations of the disorders known as dual, homozygous or compound heterozygous porphyrias.
* In 1230 A.D., Rogerius Frugardi was the first to describe erosive facial [[Lesion|lesions]] and used the term "[[lupus]]" for the first time scientifically.<ref name="pmid23008531" />
* In 1530 A.D., Giovanni Manardi used the same pattern of [[ulceration]] to describe lower extremity [[Lesion|lesions]] and also called it [[lupus]].
* In the late 18th century, Robert Willan, a British [[dermatologist]], was the first to describe the destructive [[Lesion|lesions]] of the face and nose under the heading of [[lupus]]. Lupus willani, which is cutaneous [[tuberculosis]] or [[lupus vulgaris]], is named after him.
* In 1833, Laurent Theodore Biett was the first one to describe lupus erythematosus, although he called it "erythema centrifugum." Later, his student Pierre Louis Alphee Cazenave published his work.<ref name="pmid19826244">{{cite journal |vauthors=Scofield RH, Oates J |title=The place of William Osler in the description of systemic lupus erythematosus |journal=Am. J. Med. Sci. |volume=338 |issue=5 |pages=409–12 |year=2009 |pmid=19826244 |pmc=2783313 |doi=10.1097/MAJ.0b013e3181acbd71 |url=}}</ref>
* In 1845, Ferdinand von Hebra described an aggressive skin [[lesion]] with tissue destructive characteristics. Later, in 1866, Ferdinand von Hebra used the term "butterfly" to describe what is known as [[malar rash]]. He initially named the condition "seborrhea congestiva."<ref name="pmid781465">{{cite journal |vauthors=Arnett FC, Shulman LE |title=Studies in familial systemic lupus erythematosus |journal=Medicine (Baltimore) |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=313–22 |year=1976 |pmid=781465 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* In 1851, Cazenave was the first to complete the description of [[Discoid lupus erythematosus|discoid lupus]]. He called it "lupus erythematosus."
* In 1872, Kaposi was the first to describe the systemic signs of the disorder, including [[arthritis]], [[fever]], [[anemia]], [[lymphadenopathy]], and [[weight loss]].
* Kaposi and Cazenave were the first ones who clearly distinguished lupus erythematosus from [[lupus vulgaris]] or cutaneous [[tuberculosis]], though both diseases coexist in some patients.
* In the late 19th century, Sir William Osler was the first to coin the term "systemic lupus erythematosus." He discussed systemic complications of “erythema exsudativum multiforme,” including [[Heart|cardiac]], [[pulmonary]], and [[renal]] problems as well as [[cutaneous]] [[lesions]].<ref name="pmid781465" />
* In the late 19th century, Jonathan Hutchinson was the first to describe the [[photosensitive]] nature of [[malar rash]].
* In 1902, Sequira and Balean were the first to describe [[Asphyxia|acroasphyxia]], or the [[Raynaud's phenomenon|Raynaud phenomenon]], and [[lupus nephritis]].
* In 1908, Alfred Kraus and Carl Bohac were the first to describe [[pulmonary]] involvement in lupus.
* In 1923, Emanuel Libman and Benjamin Sacks were the first to describe noninfectious [[endocarditis]] due to lupus.<ref name="pmid13486608">{{cite journal |vauthors=MOORE JE, SHULMAN LE, SCOTT JT |title=The natural history of systemic lupus erythematosus: an approach to its study through chronic biologic false positive reactors: interim report |journal=Trans. Am. Clin. Climatol. Assoc. |volume=68 |issue= |pages=59–67; discussion 67–8 |year=1956 |pmid=13486608 |pmc=2248934 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


The history of lupus erythematosus can be divided into three periods: the classical, neoclassical, and modern. The classical period began when the disease was first recognized in the Middle Ages and saw the description of the dermatological manifestation of the disorder. The term ''lupus'' is attributed to the 12th century [[physician]] [[Rogerius (physician)|Rogerius]], who used it to describe the classic malar rash. The neoclassical period was heralded by Móric Kaposi's recognition in 1872 of the systemic manifestations of the disease. The modern period began in 1948 with the discovery of the LE cell (the ''Lupus Erythematosus'' cell, a misnomer as it occurs with other diseases as well) and is characterised by advances in our knowledge of the pathophysiology and clinical-laboratory features of the disease, as well as advances in treatment.
=== Modern History ===
* In the early 20th century, George Belote and H.S. Ratner were the first to describe [[Libman-Sacks endocarditis|endocarditis of Libman-Sacks]] as a manifestation of lupus, even without concurrent [[cutaneous]] involvement. They changed the common idea of the necessity of [[cutaneous]] involvement for the diagnosis of lupus.
* In 1935, Paul Klemperer, George Baehr, and A.D. Pollack were the first to describe wire loop [[nephritis]].
* In 1959, Leonardt, Arnett, and Schulman were the first to describe the [[familial]] aggregation of lupus and concordance in [[monozygotic twins]].
* In 1906, Wasserman, while trying to develop a [[Serology|serologic]] test for [[syphilis]], was the first to describe a [[complement]]-fixing [[antibody]] that reacted with extracts from bovine hearts. The corresponding [[antigen]] was later identified as [[cardiolipin]].<ref name="pmid13486608" />
* In 1948, Malcolm Hargraves discovered the [[lupus erythematosus]] (LE) cell. He observed two unusual phenomena in several [[bone marrow]] preparations while adding [[serum]] from patients with lupus erythematosus to [[bone marrow]] preparations from normal subjects.<ref name="pmid4186059">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hargraves MM |title=Discovery of the LE cell and its morphology |journal=Mayo Clin. Proc. |volume=44 |issue=9 |pages=579–99 |year=1969 |pmid=4186059 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* In 1954, Miescher and Fauconnet observed that absorption of lupus serum with nuclei prevented its ability to induce the LE cell phenomenon, suggesting that a [[globulin]] in the serum was reacting with, or destroying, the nuclei.<ref name="pmid4186059" />
* In 1954, researchers at the Cleveland Clinic were the first to describe [[drug-induced lupus erythematosus]], which was induced by the [[antihypertensive drug]] [[hydralazine]].<ref name="pmid14357321">{{cite journal |vauthors=RUSSELL B |title=The history of lupus vulgaris: its recognition, nature, treatment and prevention |journal=Proc. R. Soc. Med. |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=127–32 |year=1955 |pmid=14357321 |pmc=1919015 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* in 1958, George Friou discovered that the substance in the serum of patients with lupus erythematosus that reacted to the [[nuclei]] of cells was [[gamma globulin]]. He also discovered that the target in the [[nucleus]] was the complex of [[DNA]] and [[histones]]. He described the [[Immunoflourescence|indirect immunoflourescence]] test to detect [[antinuclear antibodies]]. [[Autoantibodies]] like [[Ribonucleoprotein|nuclear ribonucleoprotein]] (nRNP), Smith, Ro, La, and [[Anti-cardiolipin antibodies|anticardiolipin antibodies]] were discovered based on his primary work.<ref name="pmid14357321" />
* In 1959, the discovery of a lethal [[kidney disease]] in Otago Medical School in New Zealand represented a breakthrough in the understanding of lupus. The discovery provided many insights into disease mechanisms in [[Immunopathology|immunopathogenesis]] of [[Autoantibody|auto-antibody]] formation, [[immunologic tolerance]], and the development of [[glomerulonephritis]] in lupus. The discovery also led to better evaluation of newer therapeutic agents in [[Systemic lupus erythematosus|lupus erythematosus]].<ref name="pmid3041483" />
* In 1971, the first classification criteria for lupus was established.
* In 1982, the criteria were revised by the [[American College of Rheumatology]] (ACR) to incorporate new advances in [[Serological testing|serologic testing]] ([[ANA]] and anti-[[DsDNA virus|dsDNA]]) and improved biostatistical techniques.<ref name="pmid3041483" /><ref name="pmid13486608" />
* In 2012, the Systemic Lupus Collaborating Clinics (SLICC) revised and validated the [[American College of Rheumatology]] (ACR) SLE classification criteria in order to improve clinical relevance, meet stringent methodology requirements, and incorporate new knowledge in SLE [[immunology]].<ref name="pmid3041483" />


Useful medication for the disease was first found in 1894, when [[quinine]] was first reported as an effective therapy. Four years later, the use of [[Salicylic acid|salicylate]]s in conjunction with quinine was noted to be of still greater benefit. This was the best available treatment to patients until the middle of the twentieth century, when Hench discovered the efficacy of [[corticosteroid]]s in the treatment of SLE.
==Famous cases==
* Michael Jackson, had both SLE and [[vitiligo]]; diagnosed in 1986, and confirmed by his dermatologist, Arnold Klein, who presented legal documents during court depositions.<ref>Jewett-Tennant, Jeri. [http://lupus.about.com/od/celebritieswithlupus/a/CelebJackson.htm Celebrities with Lupus: Michael Jackson]. Updated: August 11, 2008.</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Lady Gaga, has been tested borderline positive for SLE;<ref>''Larry King Live'' interview, CNN, 1 June 2010.</ref> says she hopes to avoid symptoms by maintaining a healthy lifestyle.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nationalledger.com/artman/publish/article_272632132.shtml
|title=Lady Gaga & Lupus&nbsp;— Larry King Interview
|work=National Ledger
|date=June 2, 2010
|accessdate=June 3, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.usatoday.com/story/life/people/2013/02/13/lady-gaga-cant-walk-postpones-shows/1915879/
|title=Lady Gaga 'can't walk,' postpones shows
|work=USA Today
|date=February 13, 2013
|accessdate=February 13, 2013}}</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Selena Gomez, American actress and singer was diagnosed with lupus.<ref>[http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/6721973/selena-gomez-billboard-cover-sneak-peek], billboard.com, accessed 9 October 2015</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Toni Braxton, hospitalized in Los Angeles in December 2012 because of "minor health issues" related to lupus.<ref>{{cite web|title=LUPUS FORCES SINGER TONI BRAXTON INTO LA HOSPITAL|url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/lupus-forces-singer-toni-braxton-la-hospital|publisher=AP|accessdate=8 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Louisa May Alcott, American author best known for her novel ''Little Women''; has been suggested to have had SLE.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hirschhorn N, Greaves IA |title=Louisa May Alcott: her mysterious illness |journal=Perspect. Biol. Med. |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=243–59 |year=2007 |pmid=17468541 |doi=10.1353/pbm.2007.0019 }}</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Ferdinand Marcos, former Philippine president; died of SLE complications in 1989.<ref>[http://lupus.about.com/od/celebritieswithlupus/a/CelebMarcos.htm Famous Lupus Patient: Ferdinand Marcos]. Updated: August 11, 2008.</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Hugh Gaitskell, British politician; died of SLE complications in 1963 aged 56.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/18/newsid_3376000/3376971.stm 1963: Labour leader Hugh Gaitskell dies]. ''On This Day'', [[BBC News]], 18 January 1963.</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Donald Byrne, American chess player; died from SLE complications in 1976.<ref>Cramer, Gary. [http://www.psu.edu/ur/archives/intercom_2002/Sept26/chess.html Former chess coach named to Hall of Fame]. ''Penn State Intercom'', 26 September 2002.</ref>
* Lauren Shuler Donner, American movie producer was diagnosed with lupus.<ref>Jewett-Tennant, Jeri. [http://lupus.about.com/od/celebritieswithlupus/a/CelebDonner.htm Celebrities with Lupus: Lauren Schuler Donner]. Lupus.About.com. Updated: August 28, 2008.</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Caroline Dorough-Cochran, died of SLE complications. She was the sister of Howie D. of the [[Backstreet Boys]], who founded the Dorough Lupus Foundation in her memory.<ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia" />
* Pumpuang Duangjan, "queen of Thai country music", was diagnosed with lupus.<ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Juli Furtado, champion professional mountain biker was diagnosed with lupus.<ref>[https://totalwomenscycling.com/lifestyle/interviews/interview-juli-furtado-mountain-biker-aka-the-queen-8765/ "Interview: Juli Furtado mountain biker, aka ‘The Queen’"], 20th June 2013, Aoife Glass, totalwomenscycling.com</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Sophie Howard, British glamour model was diagnosed with lupus.<ref>[http://www.lupus.org.uk/news-events/celebrity/308-sophie-howard Angie Davidson interviews top glamour model Sophie Howard], Lupus.org.uk, accessed 21 November 2008</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* J Dilla (also known as Jay Dee), hip-hop producer and beat maker; died of SLE complications in 2006.<ref>[http://rap.about.com/od/profiles/p/JaydeeProfile.htm J Dilla/Jay Dee], Rap.About.com. Retrieved February 2, 2009.</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Teddi King, American singer; died of SLE complications in 1977.<ref>[http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/article.php?id=6962 In the Beginning, 1949–1954&nbsp;— Teddi King]. Allaboutjazz.com. Retrieved February 2, 2009.</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Charles Kuralt, former anchor of ''CBS Sunday Morning''; died of SLE complications in 1997.<ref>[http://lupus.about.com/od/celebritieswithlupus/a/CelebKuralt.htm Celebrities with Lupus: Charles Kuralt]. Lupus.About.com. Updated: August 11, 2008.</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Inday Ba (also known as N'Deaye Ba), Swedish-born actress; died from SLE complications at age 32.<ref>[http://www.mailonsunday.co.uk/home/you/article-1064312/Actress-NDeaye-Bas-long-battle-wolf.html A battle with the wolf]. Gardner, Anthony. ''[[Mail on Sunday]]'', October 10, 2008.</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Mary Elizabeth McDonough, American actress; believes her SLE to be due to silicone breast implants.<ref>[http://lupus.about.com/od/celebritieswithlupus/a/LupMaryMcD.htm Celebrities with Lupus: Mary Elizabeth McDonough]. Lupus.About.com. Updated: October 28, 2008.</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Flannery O'Connor, American fiction writer; died of SLE complications in 1964.<ref>[http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-498 Flannery O'Connor (1925–1964)]. ''New Georgia Encyclopedia''. Sarah Gordon, Georgia College and State University. Updated 2008-03-21</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia" />
* Tim Raines, former major league baseball player was diagnosed with lupus.<ref>Jewett-Tennant, Jeri. [http://lupus.about.com/od/celebritieswithlupus/a/CelebRaines.htm Celebrities with Lupus: Tim Raines]. Lupus.About.com. Updated: August 28, 2008</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Ray Walston, character actor who died of SLE complications in 2001 after a six-year battle with the disease.<ref>Jewett-Tennant, Jeri. [http://lupus.about.com/od/celebritieswithlupus/a/CelebWalston.htm Celebrities with Lupus: Ray Walston]. Lupus.About.com. Updated: August 11, 2008.</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>
* Michael Wayne, Hollywood director and producer; part owner of Batjac Productions; son of John Wayne, died of [[heart failure]] resulting from SLE complications in 2003.<ref>Mclellan, Dennis. [http://articles.latimes.com/2003/apr/04/local/me-wayne4 Michael Wayne, 68; Producer, Guardian of His Father's Legacy]. ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', April 4, 2003.</ref><ref name="urlView source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia">{{cite web |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Systemic_lupus_erythematosus&action=edit |title=View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref>


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 23:26, 22 August 2017

Systemic lupus erythematosus Microchapters

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [2]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Mahshid Mir, M.D. [3]

Overview

The word "lupus" means wolf in Latin, as the destructive injuries SLE causes brought to mind wolf bites. The history of lupus erythematosus can be divided into three periods: classical, neoclassical, and modern. The classical period mostly refers to ancient history, when there was no exact definition of the disease. During the neoclassical lupus era, scientists investigated the manifestations of lupus and worked to define the disease's action. Modern history is mostly focused on a microscopical understanding of the disease and pathogenesis of SLE.

Discovery

The word "lupus" means wolf in Latin, as the destructive injuries SLE causes brought to mind wolf bites. The history of lupus erythematosus can be divided into three periods: classical, neoclassical, and modern.[1] The classical period mostly refers to ancient history, when there was no exact definition of the disease. During the neoclassical lupus era, scientists investigated the manifestations of lupus and worked to define the disease's action. Modern history is mostly focused on a microscopical understanding of the disease and pathogenesis of SLE.

Classical History

  • In ancient times, it was believed that lupus patients could turn into wolves, especially when exposed to sunlight. This false belief was later found to be related to lupus photosensitivity.[2]
  • Hippocrates was the first to use the phrase "herpes esthiomenos," which was a definition for lupus lesions. Thus, Hippocrates is considered the first to have described cutaneous ulceration of the disease.[3][4]

Neoclassical History

  • In 1230 A.D., Rogerius Frugardi was the first to describe erosive facial lesions and used the term "lupus" for the first time scientifically.[3]
  • In 1530 A.D., Giovanni Manardi used the same pattern of ulceration to describe lower extremity lesions and also called it lupus.
  • In the late 18th century, Robert Willan, a British dermatologist, was the first to describe the destructive lesions of the face and nose under the heading of lupus. Lupus willani, which is cutaneous tuberculosis or lupus vulgaris, is named after him.
  • In 1833, Laurent Theodore Biett was the first one to describe lupus erythematosus, although he called it "erythema centrifugum." Later, his student Pierre Louis Alphee Cazenave published his work.[5]
  • In 1845, Ferdinand von Hebra described an aggressive skin lesion with tissue destructive characteristics. Later, in 1866, Ferdinand von Hebra used the term "butterfly" to describe what is known as malar rash. He initially named the condition "seborrhea congestiva."[6]
  • In 1851, Cazenave was the first to complete the description of discoid lupus. He called it "lupus erythematosus."
  • In 1872, Kaposi was the first to describe the systemic signs of the disorder, including arthritis, fever, anemia, lymphadenopathy, and weight loss.
  • Kaposi and Cazenave were the first ones who clearly distinguished lupus erythematosus from lupus vulgaris or cutaneous tuberculosis, though both diseases coexist in some patients.
  • In the late 19th century, Sir William Osler was the first to coin the term "systemic lupus erythematosus." He discussed systemic complications of “erythema exsudativum multiforme,” including cardiac, pulmonary, and renal problems as well as cutaneous lesions.[6]
  • In the late 19th century, Jonathan Hutchinson was the first to describe the photosensitive nature of malar rash.
  • In 1902, Sequira and Balean were the first to describe acroasphyxia, or the Raynaud phenomenon, and lupus nephritis.
  • In 1908, Alfred Kraus and Carl Bohac were the first to describe pulmonary involvement in lupus.
  • In 1923, Emanuel Libman and Benjamin Sacks were the first to describe noninfectious endocarditis due to lupus.[7]

Modern History

Famous cases

  • Michael Jackson, had both SLE and vitiligo; diagnosed in 1986, and confirmed by his dermatologist, Arnold Klein, who presented legal documents during court depositions.[10][11]
  • Lady Gaga, has been tested borderline positive for SLE;[12] says she hopes to avoid symptoms by maintaining a healthy lifestyle.[13][14][11]
  • Selena Gomez, American actress and singer was diagnosed with lupus.[15][11]
  • Toni Braxton, hospitalized in Los Angeles in December 2012 because of "minor health issues" related to lupus.[16][11]
  • Louisa May Alcott, American author best known for her novel Little Women; has been suggested to have had SLE.[17][11]
  • Ferdinand Marcos, former Philippine president; died of SLE complications in 1989.[18][11]
  • Hugh Gaitskell, British politician; died of SLE complications in 1963 aged 56.[19][11]
  • Donald Byrne, American chess player; died from SLE complications in 1976.[20]
  • Lauren Shuler Donner, American movie producer was diagnosed with lupus.[21][11]
  • Caroline Dorough-Cochran, died of SLE complications. She was the sister of Howie D. of the Backstreet Boys, who founded the Dorough Lupus Foundation in her memory.[11]
  • Pumpuang Duangjan, "queen of Thai country music", was diagnosed with lupus.[11]
  • Juli Furtado, champion professional mountain biker was diagnosed with lupus.[22][11]
  • Sophie Howard, British glamour model was diagnosed with lupus.[23][11]
  • J Dilla (also known as Jay Dee), hip-hop producer and beat maker; died of SLE complications in 2006.[24][11]
  • Teddi King, American singer; died of SLE complications in 1977.[25][11]
  • Charles Kuralt, former anchor of CBS Sunday Morning; died of SLE complications in 1997.[26][11]
  • Inday Ba (also known as N'Deaye Ba), Swedish-born actress; died from SLE complications at age 32.[27][11]
  • Mary Elizabeth McDonough, American actress; believes her SLE to be due to silicone breast implants.[28][11]
  • Flannery O'Connor, American fiction writer; died of SLE complications in 1964.[29][11]
  • Tim Raines, former major league baseball player was diagnosed with lupus.[30][11]
  • Ray Walston, character actor who died of SLE complications in 2001 after a six-year battle with the disease.[31][11]
  • Michael Wayne, Hollywood director and producer; part owner of Batjac Productions; son of John Wayne, died of heart failure resulting from SLE complications in 2003.[32][11]

References

  1. ↑ Blotzer JW (1983). "Systemic lupus erythematosus I: historical aspects". Md State Med J. 32 (6): 439–41. PMID 6348430.
  2. ↑ Holubar K (1980). "Terminology and iconography of lupus erythematosus. A historical vignette". Am J Dermatopathol. 2 (3): 239–42. PMID 7020464.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Karrar A, Ai-Dalaan A (1994). "Systemic lupus erythematosus for general practitioners: a literature review". J Family Community Med. 1 (1): 19–29. PMC 3437177. PMID 23008531.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Smith CD, Cyr M (1988). "The history of lupus erythematosus. From Hippocrates to Osler". Rheum. Dis. Clin. North Am. 14 (1): 1–14. PMID 3041483.
  5. ↑ Scofield RH, Oates J (2009). "The place of William Osler in the description of systemic lupus erythematosus". Am. J. Med. Sci. 338 (5): 409–12. doi:10.1097/MAJ.0b013e3181acbd71. PMC 2783313. PMID 19826244.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Arnett FC, Shulman LE (1976). "Studies in familial systemic lupus erythematosus". Medicine (Baltimore). 55 (4): 313–22. PMID 781465.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 MOORE JE, SHULMAN LE, SCOTT JT (1956). "The natural history of systemic lupus erythematosus: an approach to its study through chronic biologic false positive reactors: interim report". Trans. Am. Clin. Climatol. Assoc. 68: 59–67, discussion 67–8. PMC 2248934. PMID 13486608.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Hargraves MM (1969). "Discovery of the LE cell and its morphology". Mayo Clin. Proc. 44 (9): 579–99. PMID 4186059.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 RUSSELL B (1955). "The history of lupus vulgaris: its recognition, nature, treatment and prevention". Proc. R. Soc. Med. 48 (2): 127–32. PMC 1919015. PMID 14357321.
  10. ↑ Jewett-Tennant, Jeri. Celebrities with Lupus: Michael Jackson. Updated: August 11, 2008.
  11. ↑ 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 11.14 11.15 11.16 11.17 11.18 11.19 11.20 "View source for Systemic lupus erythematosus - Wikipedia".
  12. ↑ Larry King Live interview, CNN, 1 June 2010.
  13. ↑ "Lady Gaga & Lupus — Larry King Interview". National Ledger. June 2, 2010. Retrieved June 3, 2010.
  14. ↑ "Lady Gaga 'can't walk,' postpones shows". USA Today. February 13, 2013. Retrieved February 13, 2013.
  15. ↑ [1], billboard.com, accessed 9 October 2015
  16. ↑ "LUPUS FORCES SINGER TONI BRAXTON INTO LA HOSPITAL". AP. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
  17. ↑ Hirschhorn N, Greaves IA (2007). "Louisa May Alcott: her mysterious illness". Perspect. Biol. Med. 50 (2): 243–59. doi:10.1353/pbm.2007.0019. PMID 17468541.
  18. ↑ Famous Lupus Patient: Ferdinand Marcos. Updated: August 11, 2008.
  19. ↑ 1963: Labour leader Hugh Gaitskell dies. On This Day, BBC News, 18 January 1963.
  20. ↑ Cramer, Gary. Former chess coach named to Hall of Fame. Penn State Intercom, 26 September 2002.
  21. ↑ Jewett-Tennant, Jeri. Celebrities with Lupus: Lauren Schuler Donner. Lupus.About.com. Updated: August 28, 2008.
  22. ↑ "Interview: Juli Furtado mountain biker, aka ‘The Queen’", 20th June 2013, Aoife Glass, totalwomenscycling.com
  23. ↑ Angie Davidson interviews top glamour model Sophie Howard, Lupus.org.uk, accessed 21 November 2008
  24. ↑ J Dilla/Jay Dee, Rap.About.com. Retrieved February 2, 2009.
  25. ↑ In the Beginning, 1949–1954 — Teddi King. Allaboutjazz.com. Retrieved February 2, 2009.
  26. ↑ Celebrities with Lupus: Charles Kuralt. Lupus.About.com. Updated: August 11, 2008.
  27. ↑ A battle with the wolf. Gardner, Anthony. Mail on Sunday, October 10, 2008.
  28. ↑ Celebrities with Lupus: Mary Elizabeth McDonough. Lupus.About.com. Updated: October 28, 2008.
  29. ↑ Flannery O'Connor (1925–1964). New Georgia Encyclopedia. Sarah Gordon, Georgia College and State University. Updated 2008-03-21
  30. ↑ Jewett-Tennant, Jeri. Celebrities with Lupus: Tim Raines. Lupus.About.com. Updated: August 28, 2008
  31. ↑ Jewett-Tennant, Jeri. Celebrities with Lupus: Ray Walston. Lupus.About.com. Updated: August 11, 2008.
  32. ↑ Mclellan, Dennis. Michael Wayne, 68; Producer, Guardian of His Father's Legacy. Los Angeles Times, April 4, 2003.

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