Metabolic alkalosis differential diagnosis

	Metabolic alkalosis Microchapters
Home
Patient Information
Overview
Historical Perspective
Classification
Pathophysiology
Causes
Differentiating Metabolic alkalosis from other Diseases
Epidemiology and Demographics
Risk Factors
Screening
Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Diagnosis
Diagnostic Study of Choice
History and Symptoms
Physical Examination
Laboratory Findings
Electrocardiogram
X-ray
Echocardiography and Ultrasound
CT scan
MRI
Other Imaging Findings
Other Diagnostic Studies
Treatment
Medical Therapy
Surgery
Primary Prevention
Secondary Prevention
Cost-Effectiveness of Therapy
Future or Investigational Therapies
Case Studies
Case #1
Metabolic alkalosis differential diagnosis On the Web
Most recent articles
Most cited articles
Review articles
CME Programs
Powerpoint slides
Images
American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Metabolic alkalosis differential diagnosis All Images X-rays Echo & Ultrasound CT Images MRI
Ongoing Trials at Clinical Trials.gov
US National Guidelines Clearinghouse
NICE Guidance
FDA on Metabolic alkalosis differential diagnosis
CDC on Metabolic alkalosis differential diagnosis
Metabolic alkalosis differential diagnosis in the news
Blogs on Metabolic alkalosis differential diagnosis
Directions to Hospitals Treating Psoriasis
Risk calculators and risk factors for Metabolic alkalosis differential diagnosis

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief:

Overview

Metabolic alkalosis

Metabolic Alkalosis

Differential diagnosis of metabolic alkalosis is as follow:

Category	Disease		Mechanism				Clinical						Paraclinical												Gold standard diagnosis	Other findings
							Symptoms			Signs			Lab data
							Symptoms			Signs			ABG			Chemistry					Enzyme	Renal function
			Hydrogen loss	Accumulation of base	Chloride depletion	Mineralocorticoid excess	Fever	Dyspnea	Edema	Toxic/ill	BP	Dehydration	HCO₃⁻	paCO₂	O₂	Cl⁻	K⁺	Na⁺	Ca⁺	Mg⁺	Renin	Bun	Cr	Urine Cl⁻
Exogenous HCO₃⁻ loads	Acute alkali administration^[1]		−	+	−	−	−	+	−	+	↓	−	↑	↑	↓	↓	↓	↓	↑	Nl	Nl	↑	↑	Nl	Clinical	Post treatment of lactic acidosis or ketoacidosis Increased risk of renal stones
	Milk−alkali syndrome^[2]		−	+	−	+	−	+	−	+	↓	+	↑	↑	↓	↓	↓	↓	↑	↓	↑	↑	↑	Nl	Clinical + exclusion of other causes of hypercalcemia	Ingestion of large amounts of calcium and absorbable alkali Acute kidney injury
	Transfusion^[3]		−	+	−	−	±	±	−	+	↓	−	↑	↑	↓	↓	↓ ↑	↓	↓	↑	↑	Nl to ↑	Nl to ↑	Nl	History of administration of large quantities of blood products that contain sodium citrate	Associated with renal impairment
Drugs/Medication	Chloruretic diuretics^[4]	Bumetanide Chlorothiazide Metolazone	+	−	+	+	−	−	−	−	↓	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↑	Nl	Nl	↑	Nl to ↑	Nl to ↑	↑	History	Contraction alkalosis
	Penicillin^[5]		+	−	−	−	−	−	−	−	Nl	−	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↑	Nl	↓	↑	Nl	Nl	Nl	History
	Licorice^[6]^[7]		+	−	−	+	−	−	−	+	Nl to ↑	−	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↑	Nl	Nl	↑	Nl to ↑	Nl to ↑	Nl	Clinical	Muscle weakness Paralysis
	Laxative abuse^[8]		+	−	+	−	−	−	±	+	↓	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↑	Nl	↑	↑	Nl to ↑	Nl	↓	High level of suspicion	Large−volume, watery diarrhea Cramping abdominal pain Weight loss
	Antacids^[9]^[10]	Aluminum hydroxide Sodium polystyrene sulfonate	+	+	−	−	−	−	−	−	Nl	−	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↑	Nl	↑	Nl	Nl to ↑	Nl to ↑	Nl	Clinical
Category	Disease		Hydrogen loss	Accumulation of base	Chloride depletion	Mineralocorticoid excess	Fever	Dyspnea	Edema	Toxic/ill	BP	Dehydration	HCO₃⁻	paCO₂	O₂	Cl⁻	K⁺	Na⁺	Ca⁺	Mg⁺	Renin	Bun	Cr	Urine Cl⁻	Gold standard diagnosis	Other findings
Gastrointestinal origin	Vomiting^[11]		+	−	+	−	±	−	−	+	↓	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↑	Nl	Nl	↑	Nl to ↑	Nl	↓	Clinical
	Nasogastric tube suction^[12]		+	−	+	−	−	−	−	+	↓	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↑	Nl	Nl	↑	Nl to ↑	Nl	↓	Clinical	GERD Pulmonary aspiration
	Zollinger−Ellison syndrome^[13]		+	−	+	−	−	−	−	+	↓	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↑	Nl	Nl	↑	Nl to ↑	Nl	↓	Serum gastrin concentration + secretin stimulation test	Multiple or refractory peptic ulcers Chronic diarrhea MEN1
	Bulimia nervosa^[14]		+	−	+	−	−	−	±	+	↓	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↓	Nl	↓	↑	Nl to ↑	Nl	↓	High level of suspicion	Lethargy Irregular menses Abdominal pain Constipation Salivary gland hypertrophy
	Congenital chloridorrhea^[15]		+	−	+	−	−	−	±	+	↓	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↓	↓	↓	↑	Nl to ↑	Nl to ↑	Nl to ↑	Clinical + lab data	Profuse diarrhea Polyhydramnios
	Pyloric stenosis^[16]		+	−	+	−	−	−	−	+	↓	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↓ ↑	Nl	Nl	↑	Nl to ↑	Nl	↓	Physical exam + imaging	Palpation of the “olive”
	Villous adenoma^[17]		+	−	+	−	−	−	−	+	↓	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↓	↓	↓	↑	Nl to ↑	Nl	↑	Colonoscopy	Metabolic acidosis
	Gastrocystoplasty^[18]		−	−	+	−	−	−	+	−	↓	−	↑	↑	Nl	↓	Nl	Nl	Nl	Nl	Nl	Nl to ↑	Nl to ↑	Nl	History of operation	Hematuria-dysuria syndrome
Category	Disease		Hydrogen loss	Accumulation of base	Chloride depletion	Mineralocorticoid excess	Fever	Dyspnea	Edema	Toxic/ill	BP	Dehydration	HCO₃⁻	paCO₂	O₂	Cl⁻	K⁺	Na⁺	Ca⁺	Mg⁺	Renin	Bun	Cr	Urine Cl⁻	Gold standard diagnosis	Other findings
Renal origin	Posthypercapnic state^[19]		−	−	+	+	−	±	−	−	Nl	−	↑	↑↑	↓	↓	↓	↑	Nl	Nl	↑	Nl	Nl	Nl	Lab data	Chronic respiratory acidosis
	Hypomagnesemia^[20]		+	−	−	−	−	−	−	−	Nl	−	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↑	Nl	Nl	↑	Nl	Nl	Nl	Lab data
	Hypokalemia^[21]		+	−	−	−	−	−	−	−	Nl	−	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↑	Nl	Nl	↑	Nl	Nl	Nl	Lab data
	Bartter's syndrome^[22]		+	-	-	+	-	-	-	-	Nl	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓↓	↓	↓	Nl	↑	Nl to ↑	Nl to ↑	Nl	Genetic testing	Constipation Muscle cramps and weakness Failure to thrive Sensorineural deafness Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis Hypercalciuria
	Gitelman’s syndrome^[23]		+	-	-	+	-	-	-	-	↓	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓↓	↓	Nl	↓	↑	Nl	Nl	Nl	Genetic testing	Less severe Constipation Muscle cramps and weakness Hypocalciuria
	Renal artery stenosis^[24]		+	-	+	-	-	+	+	+	↑	+	↑	↑	↓	↓	↑	↓	↑	Nl	↑	↑	↑	Nl	Clinical + imaging	Chronic kidney disease Acute rise in Cr following ACEIs or ARBs
	Liddle syndrome^[25]		+	-	-	+	-	-	-	-	↑	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓↓	↓	Nl	↓	↑	Nl	Nl	Nl	Genetic testing
	Renal tumors^[26]		+	-	+	-	-	+	+	+	↑	+	↑	↑	↓	↓	↑	↓	↑	Nl	↑	↑	↑	Nl	Biopsy
Endocrine	Cushing's syndrome^[27]		+	-	+	-	-	-	+	-	↑	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↑	↓	↑	Nl	↓	↑	↑	Nl
	Hyperaldosteronism	Primary	+	-	+	-	-	-	+	-	↑	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↓	↑	Nl	↓	↑	↑	Nl
	Hyperaldosteronism	Secondary	+	-	+	-	-	-	+	-	↑	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↓	↑	Nl	↓	↑	↑	Nl
	Adrenal enzyme defects	11β−Hydroxylase deficiency	+	-	+	-	-	-	+	-	↑	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↓	↑	Nl	↓	↑	↑	Nl
	Adrenal enzyme defects	17α−Hydroxylase deficiency	+	-	+	-	-	-	+	-	↑	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↓	↑	Nl	↓	↑	↑	Nl
	Hypercalcemia/hypoparathyroidism		+	-	+	-	-	+	+	+	↑	+	↑	↑	↓	↓	↑	↓	↑	Nl	↑	↑	↑	Nl
Systemic	Cystic fibrosis		+	−	+	−	−	−	−	+	↓	+	↑	↑	Nl	↓	↓	↑	Nl	Nl	↑	Nl to ↑	Nl	↓
Category	Disease		Hydrogen loss	Accumulation of base	Chloride depletion	Mineralocorticoid excess	Fever	Dyspnea	Edema	Toxic/ill	BP	Dehydration	HCO₃⁻	paCO₂	O₂	Cl⁻	K⁺	Na⁺	Ca⁺	Mg⁺	Renin	Bun	Cr	Urine Cl⁻	Gold standard diagnosis	Other findings

References

↑ Máttar, João A.; Weil, Max Harry; Shubin, Herbert; Stein, Leon (1974). "Cardiac arrest in the critically III". The American Journal of Medicine. 56 (2): 162–168. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(74)90593-2. ISSN 0002-9343.
↑ Abreo, Kenneth (1993). "The Milk-Alkali Syndrome". Archives of Internal Medicine. 153 (8): 1005. doi:10.1001/archinte.1993.00410080065011. ISSN 0003-9926.
↑ Gupta M, Wadhwa NK, Bukovsky R (January 2004). "Regional citrate anticoagulation for continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration using calcium-containing dialysate". Am. J. Kidney Dis. 43 (1): 67–73. PMID 14712429.
↑ Luke, R. G.; Galla, J. H. (2012). "It Is Chloride Depletion Alkalosis, Not Contraction Alkalosis". Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 23 (2): 204–207. doi:10.1681/ASN.2011070720. ISSN 1046-6673.
↑ Zaki, SyedAhmed; Lad, Vijay (2011). "Piperacillin-tazobactam-induced hypokalemia and metabolic alkalosis". Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 43 (5): 609. doi:10.4103/0253-7613.84986. ISSN 0253-7613.
↑ Meltem, Akkas Camkurt; Figen, Coskun; Nalan, Metin Aksu; Mahir, Kunt; Sebnem, Bozkurt; Mehlika, Isildak; Kasim, Kilic Ahmet; Miyase, Bayraktar (2009). "A hypokalemic muscular weakness after licorice ingestion: a case report". Cases Journal. 2 (1): 8053. doi:10.4076/1757-1626-2-8053. ISSN 1757-1626.
↑ Lin, Shih-Hua; Yang, Sung-Sen; Chau, Tom; Halperin, Mitchell L. (2003). "An Unusual Cause of Hypokalemic Paralysis: Chronic Licorice Ingestion". The American Journal of the Medical Sciences. 325 (3): 153–156. doi:10.1097/00000441-200303000-00008. ISSN 0002-9629.
↑ Roerig, James L.; Steffen, Kristine J.; Mitchell, James E.; Zunker, Christie (2010). "Laxative Abuse". Drugs. 70 (12): 1487–1503. doi:10.2165/11898640-000000000-00000. ISSN 0012-6667.
↑ Sahani, Mandeep M.; Brennan, John F.; Nwakanma, Chukwuemeka; Chow, May T.; Ing, Todd S.; Leehey, David J. (2001). "Metabolic Alkalosis in a Hemodialysis Patient After Ingestion of a Large Amount of an Antacid Medication". Artificial Organs. 25 (4): 313–315. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1594.2001.06714.x. ISSN 0160-564X.
↑ Vanpee, Dominique; Delgrange, Etienne; Gillet, Jean-Bernard; Donckier, Julian (2000). "Ingestion of antacid tablets (Rennie®) and acute confusion". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 19 (2): 169–171. doi:10.1016/S0736-4679(00)00206-7. ISSN 0736-4679.
↑ Gan, Tong J.; Meyer, Tricia; Apfel, Christian C.; Chung, Frances; Davis, Peter J.; Eubanks, Steve; Kovac, Anthony; Philip, Beverly K.; Sessler, Daniel I.; Temo, James; Tram??r, Martin R.; Watcha, Mehernoor (2003). "Consensus Guidelines for Managing Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting". Anesthesia & Analgesia: 62–71. doi:10.1213/01.ANE.0000068580.00245.95. ISSN 0003-2999.
↑ Gilbertson, Heather Ruth; Rogers, Elizabeth Jessie; Ukoumunne, Obioha Chukwunyere (2011). "Determination of a Practical pH Cutoff Level for Reliable Confirmation of Nasogastric Tube Placement". Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. 35 (4): 540–544. doi:10.1177/0148607110383285. ISSN 0148-6071.
↑ Hung, Patrick D.; Schubert, Mitchell L.; Mihas, Anastasios A. (2003). "Zollinger-Ellison syndrome". Current Treatment Options in Gastroenterology. 6 (2): 163–170. doi:10.1007/s11938-003-0017-6. ISSN 1092-8472.
↑ Shapiro, Jennifer R.; Berkman, Nancy D.; Brownley, Kimberly A.; Sedway, Jan A.; Lohr, Kathleen N.; Bulik, Cynthia M. (2007). "Bulimia nervosa treatment: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials". International Journal of Eating Disorders. 40 (4): 321–336. doi:10.1002/eat.20372. ISSN 0276-3478.
↑ Wedenoja, S.; HãGlund, P.; Holmberg, C. (2010). "Review article: the clinical management of congenital chloride diarrhoea". Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 31 (4): 477–485. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2009.04197.x. ISSN 0269-2813. C1 control character in |last2= at position 3 (help)
↑ Bakal, Unal; Sarac, Mehmet; Aydin, Mustafa; Tartar, Tugay; Kazez, Ahmet (2016). "Recent changes in the features of hypertrophic pyloric stenosis". Pediatrics International. 58 (5): 369–371. doi:10.1111/ped.12860. ISSN 1328-8067.
↑ Gennari, F. J.; Weise, W. J. (2008). "Acid-Base Disturbances in Gastrointestinal Disease". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 3 (6): 1861–1868. doi:10.2215/CJN.02450508. ISSN 1555-9041.
↑ Kurzrock, Eric A.; Baskin, Laurence S.; Kogan, Barry A. (1998). "GASTROCYSTOPLASTY: LONG-TERM FOLLOWUP". The Journal of Urology. 160 (6): 2182–2186. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(01)62289-4. ISSN 0022-5347.
↑ Banga, Amit; Khilnani, G. C. (2009). "Post-hypercapnic Alkalosis is Associated with Ventilator Dependence and Increased ICU stay". COPD: Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. 6 (6): 437–440. doi:10.3109/15412550903341448. ISSN 1541-2555.
↑ Elisaf M, Milionis H, Siamopoulos KC (1997). "Hypomagnesemic hypokalemia and hypocalcemia: clinical and laboratory characteristics". Miner Electrolyte Metab. 23 (2): 105–12. PMID 9252977.
↑ Galla JH (February 2000). "Metabolic alkalosis". J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 11 (2): 369–75. PMID 10665945.
↑ Simon, David B.; Karet, Fiona E.; Hamdan, Jahed M.; Pietro, Antonio Di; Sanjad, Sami A.; Lifton, Richard P. (1996). "Bartter's syndrome, hypokalaemic alkalosis with hypercalciuria, is caused by mutations in the Na–K–2CI cotransporter NKCC2". Nature Genetics. 13 (2): 183–188. doi:10.1038/ng0696-183. ISSN 1061-4036.
↑ Fremont, Oliver T.; Chan, James C. M. (2012). "Understanding Bartter syndrome and Gitelman syndrome". World Journal of Pediatrics. 8 (1): 25–30. doi:10.1007/s12519-012-0333-9. ISSN 1708-8569.
↑ Safian, Robert D.; Textor, Stephen C. (2001). "Renal-Artery Stenosis". New England Journal of Medicine. 344 (6): 431–442. doi:10.1056/NEJM200102083440607. ISSN 0028-4793.
↑ Salih, Mahdi; Gautschi, Ivan; van Bemmelen, Miguel X.; Di Benedetto, Michael; Brooks, Alice S.; Lugtenberg, Dorien; Schild, Laurent; Hoorn, Ewout J. (2017). "A Missense Mutation in the Extracellular Domain ofαENaC Causes Liddle Syndrome". Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 28 (11): 3291–3299. doi:10.1681/ASN.2016111163. ISSN 1046-6673.
↑ Lasseigne, Brittany N.; Brooks, James D. (2018). "The Role of DNA Methylation in Renal Cell Carcinoma". Molecular Diagnosis & Therapy. doi:10.1007/s40291-018-0337-9. ISSN 1177-1062.
↑ Araujo Castro, Marta; Marazuela Azpiroz, Mónica (2018). "Two types of ectopic Cushing syndrome or a continuum? Review". Pituitary. doi:10.1007/s11102-018-0894-2. ISSN 1386-341X.

References

Template:WH Template:WS

[MáttarWeil1974-1] Máttar, João A.; Weil, Max Harry; Shubin, Herbert; Stein, Leon (1974). "Cardiac arrest in the critically III". The American Journal of Medicine. 56 (2): 162–168. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(74)90593-2. ISSN 0002-9343.

[Abreo1993-2] Abreo, Kenneth (1993). "The Milk-Alkali Syndrome". Archives of Internal Medicine. 153 (8): 1005. doi:10.1001/archinte.1993.00410080065011. ISSN 0003-9926.

[pmid14712429-3] Gupta M, Wadhwa NK, Bukovsky R (January 2004). "Regional citrate anticoagulation for continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration using calcium-containing dialysate". Am. J. Kidney Dis. 43 (1): 67–73. PMID 14712429.

[LukeGalla2012-4] Luke, R. G.; Galla, J. H. (2012). "It Is Chloride Depletion Alkalosis, Not Contraction Alkalosis". Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 23 (2): 204–207. doi:10.1681/ASN.2011070720. ISSN 1046-6673.

[ZakiLad2011-5] Zaki, SyedAhmed; Lad, Vijay (2011). "Piperacillin-tazobactam-induced hypokalemia and metabolic alkalosis". Indian Journal of Pharmacology. 43 (5): 609. doi:10.4103/0253-7613.84986. ISSN 0253-7613.

[MeltemFigen2009-6] Meltem, Akkas Camkurt; Figen, Coskun; Nalan, Metin Aksu; Mahir, Kunt; Sebnem, Bozkurt; Mehlika, Isildak; Kasim, Kilic Ahmet; Miyase, Bayraktar (2009). "A hypokalemic muscular weakness after licorice ingestion: a case report". Cases Journal. 2 (1): 8053. doi:10.4076/1757-1626-2-8053. ISSN 1757-1626.

[LinYang2003-7] Lin, Shih-Hua; Yang, Sung-Sen; Chau, Tom; Halperin, Mitchell L. (2003). "An Unusual Cause of Hypokalemic Paralysis: Chronic Licorice Ingestion". The American Journal of the Medical Sciences. 325 (3): 153–156. doi:10.1097/00000441-200303000-00008. ISSN 0002-9629.

[RoerigSteffen2010-8] Roerig, James L.; Steffen, Kristine J.; Mitchell, James E.; Zunker, Christie (2010). "Laxative Abuse". Drugs. 70 (12): 1487–1503. doi:10.2165/11898640-000000000-00000. ISSN 0012-6667.

[SahaniBrennan2001-9] Sahani, Mandeep M.; Brennan, John F.; Nwakanma, Chukwuemeka; Chow, May T.; Ing, Todd S.; Leehey, David J. (2001). "Metabolic Alkalosis in a Hemodialysis Patient After Ingestion of a Large Amount of an Antacid Medication". Artificial Organs. 25 (4): 313–315. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1594.2001.06714.x. ISSN 0160-564X.

[VanpeeDelgrange2000-10] Vanpee, Dominique; Delgrange, Etienne; Gillet, Jean-Bernard; Donckier, Julian (2000). "Ingestion of antacid tablets (Rennie®) and acute confusion". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 19 (2): 169–171. doi:10.1016/S0736-4679(00)00206-7. ISSN 0736-4679.

[GanMeyer2003-11] Gan, Tong J.; Meyer, Tricia; Apfel, Christian C.; Chung, Frances; Davis, Peter J.; Eubanks, Steve; Kovac, Anthony; Philip, Beverly K.; Sessler, Daniel I.; Temo, James; Tram??r, Martin R.; Watcha, Mehernoor (2003). "Consensus Guidelines for Managing Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting". Anesthesia & Analgesia: 62–71. doi:10.1213/01.ANE.0000068580.00245.95. ISSN 0003-2999.

[GilbertsonRogers2011-12] Gilbertson, Heather Ruth; Rogers, Elizabeth Jessie; Ukoumunne, Obioha Chukwunyere (2011). "Determination of a Practical pH Cutoff Level for Reliable Confirmation of Nasogastric Tube Placement". Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. 35 (4): 540–544. doi:10.1177/0148607110383285. ISSN 0148-6071.

[HungSchubert2003-13] Hung, Patrick D.; Schubert, Mitchell L.; Mihas, Anastasios A. (2003). "Zollinger-Ellison syndrome". Current Treatment Options in Gastroenterology. 6 (2): 163–170. doi:10.1007/s11938-003-0017-6. ISSN 1092-8472.

[ShapiroBerkman2007-14] Shapiro, Jennifer R.; Berkman, Nancy D.; Brownley, Kimberly A.; Sedway, Jan A.; Lohr, Kathleen N.; Bulik, Cynthia M. (2007). "Bulimia nervosa treatment: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials". International Journal of Eating Disorders. 40 (4): 321–336. doi:10.1002/eat.20372. ISSN 0276-3478.

[WedenojaHãGlund2010-15] Wedenoja, S.; HãGlund, P.; Holmberg, C. (2010). "Review article: the clinical management of congenital chloride diarrhoea". Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 31 (4): 477–485. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2009.04197.x. ISSN 0269-2813. C1 control character in |last2= at position 3 (help)

[BakalSarac2016-16] Bakal, Unal; Sarac, Mehmet; Aydin, Mustafa; Tartar, Tugay; Kazez, Ahmet (2016). "Recent changes in the features of hypertrophic pyloric stenosis". Pediatrics International. 58 (5): 369–371. doi:10.1111/ped.12860. ISSN 1328-8067.

[GennariWeise2008-17] Gennari, F. J.; Weise, W. J. (2008). "Acid-Base Disturbances in Gastrointestinal Disease". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 3 (6): 1861–1868. doi:10.2215/CJN.02450508. ISSN 1555-9041.

[KurzrockBaskin1998-18] Kurzrock, Eric A.; Baskin, Laurence S.; Kogan, Barry A. (1998). "GASTROCYSTOPLASTY: LONG-TERM FOLLOWUP". The Journal of Urology. 160 (6): 2182–2186. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(01)62289-4. ISSN 0022-5347.

[BangaKhilnani2009-19] Banga, Amit; Khilnani, G. C. (2009). "Post-hypercapnic Alkalosis is Associated with Ventilator Dependence and Increased ICU stay". COPD: Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. 6 (6): 437–440. doi:10.3109/15412550903341448. ISSN 1541-2555.

[pmid9252977-20] Elisaf M, Milionis H, Siamopoulos KC (1997). "Hypomagnesemic hypokalemia and hypocalcemia: clinical and laboratory characteristics". Miner Electrolyte Metab. 23 (2): 105–12. PMID 9252977.

[pmid10665945-21] Galla JH (February 2000). "Metabolic alkalosis". J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 11 (2): 369–75. PMID 10665945.

[SimonKaret1996-22] Simon, David B.; Karet, Fiona E.; Hamdan, Jahed M.; Pietro, Antonio Di; Sanjad, Sami A.; Lifton, Richard P. (1996). "Bartter's syndrome, hypokalaemic alkalosis with hypercalciuria, is caused by mutations in the Na–K–2CI cotransporter NKCC2". Nature Genetics. 13 (2): 183–188. doi:10.1038/ng0696-183. ISSN 1061-4036.

[FremontChan2012-23] Fremont, Oliver T.; Chan, James C. M. (2012). "Understanding Bartter syndrome and Gitelman syndrome". World Journal of Pediatrics. 8 (1): 25–30. doi:10.1007/s12519-012-0333-9. ISSN 1708-8569.

[SafianTextor2001-24] Safian, Robert D.; Textor, Stephen C. (2001). "Renal-Artery Stenosis". New England Journal of Medicine. 344 (6): 431–442. doi:10.1056/NEJM200102083440607. ISSN 0028-4793.

[SalihGautschi2017-25] Salih, Mahdi; Gautschi, Ivan; van Bemmelen, Miguel X.; Di Benedetto, Michael; Brooks, Alice S.; Lugtenberg, Dorien; Schild, Laurent; Hoorn, Ewout J. (2017). "A Missense Mutation in the Extracellular Domain ofαENaC Causes Liddle Syndrome". Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 28 (11): 3291–3299. doi:10.1681/ASN.2016111163. ISSN 1046-6673.

[LasseigneBrooks2018-26] Lasseigne, Brittany N.; Brooks, James D. (2018). "The Role of DNA Methylation in Renal Cell Carcinoma". Molecular Diagnosis & Therapy. doi:10.1007/s40291-018-0337-9. ISSN 1177-1062.

[Araujo_CastroMarazuela_Azpiroz2018-27] Araujo Castro, Marta; Marazuela Azpiroz, Mónica (2018). "Two types of ectopic Cushing syndrome or a continuum? Review". Pituitary. doi:10.1007/s11102-018-0894-2. ISSN 1386-341X.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

Metabolic alkalosis differential diagnosis

Overview

Metabolic Alkalosis

References

References

Navigation menu