Lower gastrointestinal bleeding pathophysiology

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Aditya Ganti M.B.B.S. [2]

Overview

Superior mesenteric artery and inferior mesenteric artery are the two major blood vessels that supply lower gastrointestinal tract. Disruption of blood vessel junction, formed by these two vessels, by any of the disease process results in bleeding. Diverticulosis is the most common etiology of lower GI bleeding accounting for 30% of all cases, followed by ano-rectal disease, ischemia of bowel, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), neoplasia, and arteriovenous (AV) malformations. The characteristic gross and microscopic findings of lower gastrointestinal tracts depends upon the underlying pathology.

Pathophysiology

Blood supply

Lower GI Tract Arterial Supply Venous Drainage
Midgut
Hindgut
ɸ -Except lower rectum, which drains into the systemic circulation.
Blood supply to the intestines includes the celiac artery, superior mesenteric artery (SMA), inferior mesenteric artery (IMA), and branches of the internal iliac artery (IIA).
Source: By Anpol42 (Own work) [CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Pathogenesis

The pathogenesis of lower gastrointestinal bleeding can be discussed based on the etiology. Diverticulosis is the most common etiology of lower GI bleeding accounting for 30% of all cases, followed by anorectal disease, ischemia, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), neoplasia, and arteriovenous (AV) malformations.

Diagram of sigmoid diverticulum
Source:By Anpol42 (Own work) [CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
  • Anorectal disease
  • Hemorrhoids are defined as swelling and inflammation of veins in the rectal and anal region
  • Hemorrhoids can be either internal or external based on their relation to dentate line.
  • The first step in the pathogenesis of either type of hemorrhoids is weakening of the surrounding connective tissue and vein wall.[8][9][8]
  • Weakening of blood vessels can result in bleeding under pressure.
  • An anal fissure can be defined as disruption or tear in the mucosal surface of the skin.
  • During defecation, due to increased pressure which can exaggerate the tears may present as bright red rectal bleeding with severe periodic pain.[10]
  • Mesenteric ischemia results when there is inadequate blood supply at the level of the small intestine.[11][12][13][14]
  • 2 or more vessels (celiac, SMA, or IMA) must be involved for bleeding to occur.
  • Decreased blood supply can occur due to obstruction of blood vessel either by emobolus or due to vasoconstriction effect of drugs.
  • Decreased blood supply initiates necrosis of mucosal surface of intestine.
  • unopposed blood deprivation leads to trans-mural necrosis and ultimately sloughing of the tissues with associated bleeding.
  • Ischemic colitis is a condition in which injury of the large intestine results from decreased blood supply.[15][16][17]
  • The colon is most commonly involved due the presence of water shed areas ( splenic flexure and hepatic flexure).
  • Similar to mesentric ischemia bleeding occurs due to necrosis and sloughing of mucosal membrane.
  • AV Malformation/Angiodysplasia
  • In AV malformation abnormal connections occur between arteries and veins.[32][33][34][35][36]
  • This connections results in blood flow from high pressure arteries to low pressure veins without buffering effects of capillaries.
  • The lack of capillary buffers makes the vessels weak due to increased blood flow and ultimately bleeding.
  • In Angiodysplasia, with age the connective tissue of the blood vessels become weak.
  • With mild increase in pressure leads to disrupture of vessels leading to painless bleeding.

Associated Conditions

Other diseases that are commonly associated with lower gastrointestinal bleeding include:

Gross and Microscopic Pathology

Disease Gross Pathology Microscopic Pathology
Diverticulosis[37]
Angiodysplasia[38]
Hemorrhoids[8]
  • Tortuous superficial dilatations of multiple blood vessels.
Mesenteric ischemia [39]
Ischemic colitis[39]
Crohn's disease[40][41] 
Ulcerative colitis[42]

References

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