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[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 9024.JPG|right|thumb|Fanning [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 exposes [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 gland (white-at tip of abdomen) releasing pheromone to entice swarm into an empty hive]]
[[Image:Nasinov 9024.JPG|right|thumb|Fanning [[honeybee]] exposes [[Nasonov]] gland (white-at tip of abdomen) releasing pheromone to entice swarm into an empty hive]]
==Overview==
==Overview==
A '''pheromone''' is a [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 that triggers a natural behavioral response in another member of the same species. There are ''alarm pheromones'', ''food trail pheromones'', ''sex pheromones'', and many others that affect behavior or physiology. Their use among [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 has been particularly well documented, although many [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 and [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 also communicate using pheromones.
A '''pheromone''' is a [[chemical]] that triggers a natural behavioral response in another member of the same species. There are ''alarm pheromones'', ''food trail pheromones'', ''sex pheromones'', and many others that affect behavior or physiology. Their use among [[insect]]s has been particularly well documented, although many [[vertebrate]]s and [[plant]]s also communicate using pheromones.


== Explanation ==
== Explanation ==
Pheromones of the Raydon Cheadle Navarro insect species, such as the [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 beetle]] and the [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 moth]], can be used to induce many behaviors. This facilitates trapping for monitoring purposes and population control by creating confusion, disrupting mating and preventing them from laying eggs.
Pheromones of the Raydon Cheadle Navarro insect species, such as the [[Japanese beetle]] and the [[gypsy moth]], can be used to induce many behaviors. This facilitates trapping for monitoring purposes and population control by creating confusion, disrupting mating and preventing them from laying eggs.


In [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 and [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 pheromones may be detected by the [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 organ]], or Jacobson's organ, which lies between the nose and mouth and is the first stage of the [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 olfactory system]]. Some pheromones in these animals are detected by regular [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 membranes.
In [[mammal]]s and [[reptile]]s, pheromones may be detected by the [[vomeronasal organ]], or Jacobson's organ, which lies between the nose and mouth and is the first stage of the [[accessory olfactory system]]. Some pheromones in these animals are detected by regular [[olfactory]] membranes.


The term "pheromone" was introduced by Peter Karlson and Martin Lüscher in 1959, based on the Greek ''pherein '' (to transport) and ''hormon'' (to stimulate). They proposed the term to describe chemical signals from [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 which elicit innate behaviours soon after Butenandt characterized the first such chemical, [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 (a chemically well-characterized pheromone released by the female [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 to attract mates).<ref>Karlson, P., Lüscher, M. (1959). Pheromones: a new term for a class of biologically active substances. ''[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 '''183''', 55-56.</ref> <!-- I will get a direct quote tomorrow when i can access the paper! -->
The term "pheromone" was introduced by Peter Karlson and Martin Lüscher in 1959, based on the Greek ''pherein '' (to transport) and ''hormon'' (to stimulate). They proposed the term to describe chemical signals from [[conspecific]]s which elicit innate behaviours soon after Butenandt characterized the first such chemical, [[Bombykol]] (a chemically well-characterized pheromone released by the female [[silkworm]] to attract mates).<ref>Karlson, P., Lüscher, M. (1959). Pheromones: a new term for a class of biologically active substances. ''[[Nature]]'' '''183''', 55-56.</ref> <!-- I will get a direct quote tomorrow when i can access the paper! -->


==Types of pheromones==
==Types of pheromones==
Line 19: Line 19:


===Alarm pheromones===
===Alarm pheromones===
Some species release a volatile substance when attacked by a predator that can trigger flight (in [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 or aggression (in bees) in members of the same species. Pheromones also exist in plants:certain plants emit alarm pheromones when grazed upon, resulting in [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 production in neighboring plants. These tannins make the plants less appetizing for the [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 pheromones===
Some species release a volatile substance when attacked by a predator that can trigger flight (in [[aphid]]s) or aggression (in bees) in members of the same species. Pheromones also exist in plants:certain plants emit alarm pheromones when grazed upon, resulting in [[tannin]] production in neighboring plants. These tannins make the plants less appetizing for the [[herbivore]].
Recognized in insects, these pheromones are different from territory pheromones. According to [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 Henri Fabre|Fabre]] (translated from French), "Females who lay their eggs in these fruits deposit these mysterious substances in the vicinity of their clutch to signal to other females of the same species so that they will clutch elsewhere."  
 
[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 aggregation.jpg|right|thumb|Aggregation of nymphs of bugs]]
===Epideictic pheromones===
Recognized in insects, these pheromones are different from territory pheromones. According to [[Jean Henri Fabre|Fabre]] (translated from French), "Females who lay their eggs in these fruits deposit these mysterious substances in the vicinity of their clutch to signal to other females of the same species so that they will clutch elsewhere."  
[[Image:Bug aggregation.jpg|right|thumb|Aggregation of nymphs of bugs]]


===Releaser pheromones===
===Releaser pheromones===
Line 33: Line 35:


===Trail pheromones===
===Trail pheromones===
These pheromones are common in social insects. For example, [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 mark their paths with these pheromones, which are non-volatile [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 ants lay down an initial trail of pheromones as they return to the nest with food. This trail attracts other ants and serves as a guide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Feb98/antpheromone.hrs.html | title=Excited ants follow pheromone trail of same chemical they will use to paralyze their prey | accessdate=2006-03-14}}</ref> As long as the food source remains, the pheromone trail will be continually renewed. The pheromone must be continually renewed because it evaporates quickly. When the supply begins to dwindle, the trailmaking ceases. In at least one species of ant, trails that no longer lead to food are also marked with a repellent pheromone.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://animal.discovery.com/news/afp/20051128/ants.html | title=Study: Ants Use Scents Like Road Signs | accessdate=2006-03-14}}</ref>
These pheromones are common in social insects. For example, [[ant]]s mark their paths with these pheromones, which are non-volatile [[hydrocarbon]]s.
 
Certain ants lay down an initial trail of pheromones as they return to the nest with food. This trail attracts other ants and serves as a guide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Feb98/antpheromone.hrs.html | title=Excited ants follow pheromone trail of same chemical they will use to paralyze their prey | accessdate=2006-03-14}}</ref> As long as the food source remains, the pheromone trail will be continually renewed. The pheromone must be continually renewed because it evaporates quickly. When the supply begins to dwindle, the trailmaking ceases. In at least one species of ant, trails that no longer lead to food are also marked with a repellent pheromone.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://animal.discovery.com/news/afp/20051128/ants.html | title=Study: Ants Use Scents Like Road Signs | accessdate=2006-03-14}}</ref>


===Sex pheromones===
===Sex pheromones===
[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 Pheromon fg01.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 on a pheromone trap]]
[[Image:Sesiidae Pheromon fg01.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Sesiidae]] on a pheromone trap]]
In animals, sex pheromones indicate the availability of the female for breeding. Many insect species release sex pheromones to attract a mate and many [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 can detect a potential mate from as far away as 10&nbsp;km (6.2&nbsp;miles). Pheromones can be used in [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 to trail the opposite sex's gametes for [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 Pheromones are also used in the detection of [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 in [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 pheromones are sprayed into the [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 and those sows which exhibit [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 arousal]] are known to be currently available for breeding.
In animals, sex pheromones indicate the availability of the female for breeding. Many insect species release sex pheromones to attract a mate and many [[lepidoptera]]ns can detect a potential mate from as far away as 10&nbsp;km (6.2&nbsp;miles). Pheromones can be used in [[gamete]]s to trail the opposite sex's gametes for [[fertilization]]. Pheromones are also used in the detection of [[oestrus]] in [[Pig|sows]]. [[Boar]] pheromones are sprayed into the [[wiktionary:sty|sty]], and those sows which exhibit [[sexual arousal]] are known to be currently available for breeding.


Male animals also emit pheromones that convey information about what species they are, and their [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 The purpose of pheromones giving information about genotype is a mechanism to avoid inbreeding. Females are attracted to males with the least similar genotype, which means they are attracted to males who are the least likely to be related to them. An exception to this is when the female is pregnant. Then they are most drawn to individuals with the most similar pheromones (and therefore genotype) most likely because they want to keep family close by to aid with the raising of their young and to take advantage of protection.
Male animals also emit pheromones that convey information about what species they are, and their [[genotype]]. The purpose of pheromones giving information about genotype is a mechanism to avoid inbreeding. Females are attracted to males with the least similar genotype, which means they are attracted to males who are the least likely to be related to them. An exception to this is when the female is pregnant. Then they are most drawn to individuals with the most similar pheromones (and therefore genotype) most likely because they want to keep family close by to aid with the raising of their young and to take advantage of protection.


===Other pheromones (not yet classified)===
===Other pheromones (not yet classified)===
This classification, based on the effects on behavior, remains artificial. Pheromones fill many additional functions.
This classification, based on the effects on behavior, remains artificial. Pheromones fill many additional functions.
* [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 pheromones (worker bees)
* [[Nasonov]] pheromones (worker bees)
* Royal pheromones (bees)
* Royal pheromones (bees)
* Calming (appeasement) pheromones (mammals)
* Calming (appeasement) pheromones (mammals)


==Human pheromones==
==Human pheromones==
A few well-controlled scientific studies have been published suggesting the possibility of pheromones in humans. The best-studied case involves the synchronization of [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 cycle]]s among women based on unconscious odor cues (the so called ''[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 effect]]'', named after the primary investigator). This study proposes that there are two types of pheromone involved: "One, produced prior to ovulation, shortens the ovarian cycle; and the second, produced just at ovulation, lengthens the cycle". This is analogous to the ''[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 effect]]'',<ref>Whitten, M.K. 1957. Effect of exteroceptive factors on the oestrous cycle of mice. Nature. 180(4599):1436. [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 BK, Dominic CJ. 1984. Studies of the male-originating pheromones involved in the Whitten effect and Bruce effect in mice. Biol Reprod. 31(1):89-96.[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 a male pheromone mediated modulation of [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 observed in mice.
A few well-controlled scientific studies have been published suggesting the possibility of pheromones in humans. The best-studied case involves the synchronization of [[menstrual cycle]]s among women based on unconscious odor cues (the so called ''[[McClintock effect]]'', named after the primary investigator). This study proposes that there are two types of pheromone involved: "One, produced prior to ovulation, shortens the ovarian cycle; and the second, produced just at ovulation, lengthens the cycle". This is analogous to the ''[[Whitten effect]]'',<ref>Whitten, M.K. 1957. Effect of exteroceptive factors on the oestrous cycle of mice. Nature. 180(4599):1436. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=13493564&query_hl=2&itool=pubmed_DocSum]</ref><ref>Gangrade BK, Dominic CJ. 1984. Studies of the male-originating pheromones involved in the Whitten effect and Bruce effect in mice. Biol Reprod. 31(1):89-96.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=6540606&dopt=Abstract]</ref> a male pheromone mediated modulation of [[estrus]] observed in mice.


Other studies have suggested that people might be using odor cues associated with the immune system to select mates who are not closely related to themselves. (See [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 sexual selection]]) Using a brain imaging technique, [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 researchers have shown that [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 and [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 males' brains respond differently to two odors that may be involved in sexual arousal, and that the homosexual men respond in the same way as heterosexual women. The study was expanded to include lesbian women and the results were consistent with previous findings meaning that homosexual women were not as responsive to male identified odors but their response to female cues was similar to heterosexual males.<ref> Savic, I."[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 Brain response to putative pheromones in lesbian women]." PNAS, May 16, 2006</ref> According to the researchers, this research suggests a possible role for human pheromones in the biological basis of [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 orientation]].<ref>Wade, N. "[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 Gay Men are found to have Different Scent of Attraction]." NY Times, May 9, 2005</ref>
Other studies have suggested that people might be using odor cues associated with the immune system to select mates who are not closely related to themselves. (See [[Disassortative sexual selection]]) Using a brain imaging technique, [[Sweden|Swedish]] researchers have shown that [[Homosexuality|homosexual]] and [[Heterosexuality|heterosexual]] males' brains respond differently to two odors that may be involved in sexual arousal, and that the homosexual men respond in the same way as heterosexual women. The study was expanded to include lesbian women and the results were consistent with previous findings meaning that homosexual women were not as responsive to male identified odors but their response to female cues was similar to heterosexual males.<ref> Savic, I."[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/0600331103v1?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=ivanka&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT Brain response to putative pheromones in lesbian women]." PNAS, May 16, 2006</ref> According to the researchers, this research suggests a possible role for human pheromones in the biological basis of [[sexual orientation]].<ref>Wade, N. "[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/09/science/09cnd-smell.html Gay Men are found to have Different Scent of Attraction]." NY Times, May 9, 2005</ref>
Another study demonstrated that the smell of [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 a chemical component of male [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 maintains higher levels of [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 in females. The scientists suggest that the ability of this compound to influence the [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 balance of the opposite sex makes it a human pheromonal chemosignal.<ref>Wyart C, Webster WW, Chen JH, Wilson SR, McClary A, Khan RM, Sobel N. 2007. Smelling a single component of male sweat alters levels of cortisol in women. J Neurosci. 27(6):1261-5.[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 2006 it was shown that a second mouse [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 receptor|receptor]] sub-class is found in the [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 epithelium]]. Called the [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 amine-associated receptor]]s (TAAR), some are activated by volatile [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 found in mouse urine, including one putative mouse pheromone.<ref>Liberles SD, Buck LB. 2006. A second class of chemosensory receptors in the olfactory epithelium. Nature. 442(7103):645-50. [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 receptors exist in humans providing, the authors propose, evidence for a mechanism of human pheromone detection.<ref>Pearson H. 2006. Mouse data hint at human pheromones. Nature. 442(7102):495. [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 commercially-available substances are advertised using claims that the products contain human sexual pheromones and can act as an [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 These often lack credibility due to an excessive marketing of pheromones by [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 (electronic)|unsolicited e-mail]]. Despite claims to the contrary, no defined pheromonal substance has ever been demonstrated to directly influence human behavior in a [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 review]]ed, published study.<ref>Wyatt, Tristram D. (2003). ''Pheromones and Animal Behaviour: Communication by Smell and Taste.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48526-6. </ref>
Another study demonstrated that the smell of [[androstadienone]], a chemical component of male [[sweat]], maintains higher levels of [[cortisol]] in females. The scientists suggest that the ability of this compound to influence the [[endocrine]] balance of the opposite sex makes it a human pheromonal chemosignal.<ref>Wyart C, Webster WW, Chen JH, Wilson SR, McClary A, Khan RM, Sobel N. 2007. Smelling a single component of male sweat alters levels of cortisol in women. J Neurosci. 27(6):1261-5.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=17287500&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum]</ref>
 
In 2006 it was shown that a second mouse [[odorant receptor|receptor]] sub-class is found in the [[olfactory epithelium]]. Called the [[trace amine-associated receptor]]s (TAAR), some are activated by volatile [[amine]]s found in mouse urine, including one putative mouse pheromone.<ref>Liberles SD, Buck LB. 2006. A second class of chemosensory receptors in the olfactory epithelium. Nature. 442(7103):645-50. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16878137&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum]</ref> [[Ortholog]]ous receptors exist in humans providing, the authors propose, evidence for a mechanism of human pheromone detection.<ref>Pearson H. 2006. Mouse data hint at human pheromones. Nature. 442(7102):495. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16885951&query_hl=5&itool=pubmed_docsum]</ref>
 
Some commercially-available substances are advertised using claims that the products contain human sexual pheromones and can act as an [[aphrodisiac]]. These often lack credibility due to an excessive marketing of pheromones by [[Spam (electronic)|unsolicited e-mail]]. Despite claims to the contrary, no defined pheromonal substance has ever been demonstrated to directly influence human behavior in a [[peer review]]ed, published study.<ref>Wyatt, Tristram D. (2003). ''Pheromones and Animal Behaviour: Communication by Smell and Taste.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48526-6. </ref>


==See also==
==See also==
* [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 Wedekind]]
* [[Allomone]]
* [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 facial pheromone]]
* [[Androstenol]]
* [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 bee pheromones]]
* [[Androstenone]]
* [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 in fiction]]
* [[Claus Wedekind]]
* [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 sensing]]
* [[Estratetraenol]]
* [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 organ]]
* [[Feline facial pheromone]]
* [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 an organ in swallowtail caterpillars
* [[Kairomone]]
* [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 odor]]: [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 reading==
* [[Honey bee pheromones]]
*Kohl, JV., Atzmueller, M., Fink, B. & Grammer, K. (2001). Human Pheromones: Integrating Neuroendocrinology and Ethology. ''Neuroendocrinology Letters, 22(5),'' 319-331. [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 Full text]
* [[Pheromones in fiction]]
*Liberles, S.D., [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 Buck|Buck, L.B.]] (2006). A second class of chemosensory receptors in the olfactory epithelium. ''Nature, 442,'' 645-50.
* [[Quorum sensing]]
* [[Semiochemical]]
* [[Testosterone]]
* [[Vomeronasal organ]]
* [[Osmeterium]], an organ in swallowtail caterpillars
* [[Body odor]]: [[sweat]]
 
==Further reading==
*Kohl, JV., Atzmueller, M., Fink, B. & Grammer, K. (2001). Human Pheromones: Integrating Neuroendocrinology and Ethology. ''Neuroendocrinology Letters, 22(5),'' 319-331. [http://evolution.anthro.univie.ac.at/institutes/urbanethology/resources/pdf/NEL220501R01_.pdf Full text]
*Liberles, S.D., [[Linda Buck|Buck, L.B.]] (2006). A second class of chemosensory receptors in the olfactory epithelium. ''Nature, 442,'' 645-50.
*McClintock, M.K. (1984). Estrous synchrony: modulation of ovarian cycle length by female pheromones. ''Physiological Behavior, 32,'' 701-705.
*McClintock, M.K. (1984). Estrous synchrony: modulation of ovarian cycle length by female pheromones. ''Physiological Behavior, 32,'' 701-705.
*[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 O. Wilson|Wilson, E. O.]], Bossert, W. H. (1963). Chemical communication among animals. ''Recent Progress in Hormone Research, 19,'' 673-716.
*[[Edward O. Wilson|Wilson, E. O.]], Bossert, W. H. (1963). Chemical communication among animals. ''Recent Progress in Hormone Research, 19,'' 673-716.
*Wyatt, Tristram D. (2003). ''Pheromones and Animal Behaviour: Communication by Smell and Taste.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48526-6.
*Wyatt, Tristram D. (2003). ''Pheromones and Animal Behaviour: Communication by Smell and Taste.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48526-6.


==External links==
==External links==
<!--NO COMMERCIAL SITES PLEASE-->
<!--NO COMMERCIAL SITES PLEASE-->
*[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 Pherobase], the database of insect pheromones
*[http://www.pherobase.com/ Pherobase], the database of insect pheromones
*[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 SFSU study shows that synthetic pheromones in women's perfume increase intimate contact with men]
*[http://www.sfsu.edu/~news/prsrelea/fy01/091.htm SFSU study shows that synthetic pheromones in women's perfume increase intimate contact with men]
*[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 Male Axillary Extracts Contain Pheromones that Affect Pulsatile Secretion of Luteinizing Hormone and Mood in Women Recipients]
*[http://www.biolreprod.org/cgi/content/full/68/6/2107 Male Axillary Extracts Contain Pheromones that Affect Pulsatile Secretion of Luteinizing Hormone and Mood in Women Recipients]
*[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 Sexual Orientation, in the Brain]
*[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/05/09/tech/main694078.shtml Sexual Orientation, in the Brain]
*[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 Review of published debate about HOW insects detect pheromones over large distances, even when the wind seems unfavourable]
*[http://www.ondwelle.com/OSM03.pdf Review of published debate about HOW insects detect pheromones over large distances, even when the wind seems unfavourable]
*[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 Male sweat boosts women's hormone levels] -- from [http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 Berkeley]], February 2007
*[http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2007/02/06_sweat.shtml Male sweat boosts women's hormone levels] -- from [[UC Berkeley]], February 2007
*[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 The Effect of Male Sweat on Women's Hormone Levels] -- from ''Science Daily'', February 2007
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/02/070207172019.htm The Effect of Male Sweat on Women's Hormone Levels] -- from ''Science Daily'', February 2007
*[http://worldselectshop.com/?id=9361 Pheromones In Male Perspiration Reduce Women's Tension, Alter Hormone Response] -- from ''Science Daily'' (March 2003)
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/03/030317074228.htm Pheromones In Male Perspiration Reduce Women's Tension, Alter Hormone Response] -- from ''Science Daily'' (March 2003)


==References==
==References==

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Fanning honeybee exposes Nasonov gland (white-at tip of abdomen) releasing pheromone to entice swarm into an empty hive

Overview

A pheromone is a chemical that triggers a natural behavioral response in another member of the same species. There are alarm pheromones, food trail pheromones, sex pheromones, and many others that affect behavior or physiology. Their use among insects has been particularly well documented, although many vertebrates and plants also communicate using pheromones.

Explanation

Pheromones of the Raydon Cheadle Navarro insect species, such as the Japanese beetle and the gypsy moth, can be used to induce many behaviors. This facilitates trapping for monitoring purposes and population control by creating confusion, disrupting mating and preventing them from laying eggs.

In mammals and reptiles, pheromones may be detected by the vomeronasal organ, or Jacobson's organ, which lies between the nose and mouth and is the first stage of the accessory olfactory system. Some pheromones in these animals are detected by regular olfactory membranes.

The term "pheromone" was introduced by Peter Karlson and Martin Lüscher in 1959, based on the Greek pherein (to transport) and hormon (to stimulate). They proposed the term to describe chemical signals from conspecifics which elicit innate behaviours soon after Butenandt characterized the first such chemical, Bombykol (a chemically well-characterized pheromone released by the female silkworm to attract mates).[1]

Types of pheromones

Aggregation pheromones

Produced by one or the other sex, these pheromones attract individuals of both sexes.

Alarm pheromones

Some species release a volatile substance when attacked by a predator that can trigger flight (in aphids) or aggression (in bees) in members of the same species. Pheromones also exist in plants:certain plants emit alarm pheromones when grazed upon, resulting in tannin production in neighboring plants. These tannins make the plants less appetizing for the herbivore.

Epideictic pheromones

Recognized in insects, these pheromones are different from territory pheromones. According to Fabre (translated from French), "Females who lay their eggs in these fruits deposit these mysterious substances in the vicinity of their clutch to signal to other females of the same species so that they will clutch elsewhere."

Aggregation of nymphs of bugs

Releaser pheromones

Powerful attractant molecules that some organisms may use to attract mates from a distance of 2 miles or more. This type of pheromone generally elicites rapid response but is quickly degraded. In contrast, a primer pheromone would have a slower onset but a longer duration.

Primer pheromones

These pheromones trigger a change of developmental events.

Territorial pheromones

Laid down in the environment, these pheromones mark the boundaries of an organism's territory. In dogs, these hormones are present in the urine, which they deposit on landmarks serving to mark the perimeter of the claimed territory.

Trail pheromones

These pheromones are common in social insects. For example, ants mark their paths with these pheromones, which are non-volatile hydrocarbons.

Certain ants lay down an initial trail of pheromones as they return to the nest with food. This trail attracts other ants and serves as a guide.[2] As long as the food source remains, the pheromone trail will be continually renewed. The pheromone must be continually renewed because it evaporates quickly. When the supply begins to dwindle, the trailmaking ceases. In at least one species of ant, trails that no longer lead to food are also marked with a repellent pheromone.[3]

Sex pheromones

Sesiidae on a pheromone trap

In animals, sex pheromones indicate the availability of the female for breeding. Many insect species release sex pheromones to attract a mate and many lepidopterans can detect a potential mate from as far away as 10 km (6.2 miles). Pheromones can be used in gametes to trail the opposite sex's gametes for fertilization. Pheromones are also used in the detection of oestrus in sows. Boar pheromones are sprayed into the sty, and those sows which exhibit sexual arousal are known to be currently available for breeding.

Male animals also emit pheromones that convey information about what species they are, and their genotype. The purpose of pheromones giving information about genotype is a mechanism to avoid inbreeding. Females are attracted to males with the least similar genotype, which means they are attracted to males who are the least likely to be related to them. An exception to this is when the female is pregnant. Then they are most drawn to individuals with the most similar pheromones (and therefore genotype) most likely because they want to keep family close by to aid with the raising of their young and to take advantage of protection.

Other pheromones (not yet classified)

This classification, based on the effects on behavior, remains artificial. Pheromones fill many additional functions.

  • Nasonov pheromones (worker bees)
  • Royal pheromones (bees)
  • Calming (appeasement) pheromones (mammals)

Human pheromones

A few well-controlled scientific studies have been published suggesting the possibility of pheromones in humans. The best-studied case involves the synchronization of menstrual cycles among women based on unconscious odor cues (the so called McClintock effect, named after the primary investigator). This study proposes that there are two types of pheromone involved: "One, produced prior to ovulation, shortens the ovarian cycle; and the second, produced just at ovulation, lengthens the cycle". This is analogous to the Whitten effect,[4][5] a male pheromone mediated modulation of estrus observed in mice.

Other studies have suggested that people might be using odor cues associated with the immune system to select mates who are not closely related to themselves. (See Disassortative sexual selection) Using a brain imaging technique, Swedish researchers have shown that homosexual and heterosexual males' brains respond differently to two odors that may be involved in sexual arousal, and that the homosexual men respond in the same way as heterosexual women. The study was expanded to include lesbian women and the results were consistent with previous findings meaning that homosexual women were not as responsive to male identified odors but their response to female cues was similar to heterosexual males.[6] According to the researchers, this research suggests a possible role for human pheromones in the biological basis of sexual orientation.[7] Another study demonstrated that the smell of androstadienone, a chemical component of male sweat, maintains higher levels of cortisol in females. The scientists suggest that the ability of this compound to influence the endocrine balance of the opposite sex makes it a human pheromonal chemosignal.[8]

In 2006 it was shown that a second mouse receptor sub-class is found in the olfactory epithelium. Called the trace amine-associated receptors (TAAR), some are activated by volatile amines found in mouse urine, including one putative mouse pheromone.[9] Orthologous receptors exist in humans providing, the authors propose, evidence for a mechanism of human pheromone detection.[10]

Some commercially-available substances are advertised using claims that the products contain human sexual pheromones and can act as an aphrodisiac. These often lack credibility due to an excessive marketing of pheromones by unsolicited e-mail. Despite claims to the contrary, no defined pheromonal substance has ever been demonstrated to directly influence human behavior in a peer reviewed, published study.[11]

See also

Further reading

  • Kohl, JV., Atzmueller, M., Fink, B. & Grammer, K. (2001). Human Pheromones: Integrating Neuroendocrinology and Ethology. Neuroendocrinology Letters, 22(5), 319-331. Full text
  • Liberles, S.D., Buck, L.B. (2006). A second class of chemosensory receptors in the olfactory epithelium. Nature, 442, 645-50.
  • McClintock, M.K. (1984). Estrous synchrony: modulation of ovarian cycle length by female pheromones. Physiological Behavior, 32, 701-705.
  • Wilson, E. O., Bossert, W. H. (1963). Chemical communication among animals. Recent Progress in Hormone Research, 19, 673-716.
  • Wyatt, Tristram D. (2003). Pheromones and Animal Behaviour: Communication by Smell and Taste. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48526-6.

External links

References

  1. Karlson, P., Lüscher, M. (1959). Pheromones: a new term for a class of biologically active substances. Nature 183, 55-56.
  2. "Excited ants follow pheromone trail of same chemical they will use to paralyze their prey". Retrieved 2006-03-14.
  3. "Study: Ants Use Scents Like Road Signs". Retrieved 2006-03-14.
  4. Whitten, M.K. 1957. Effect of exteroceptive factors on the oestrous cycle of mice. Nature. 180(4599):1436. [1]
  5. Gangrade BK, Dominic CJ. 1984. Studies of the male-originating pheromones involved in the Whitten effect and Bruce effect in mice. Biol Reprod. 31(1):89-96.[2]
  6. Savic, I."Brain response to putative pheromones in lesbian women." PNAS, May 16, 2006
  7. Wade, N. "Gay Men are found to have Different Scent of Attraction." NY Times, May 9, 2005
  8. Wyart C, Webster WW, Chen JH, Wilson SR, McClary A, Khan RM, Sobel N. 2007. Smelling a single component of male sweat alters levels of cortisol in women. J Neurosci. 27(6):1261-5.[3]
  9. Liberles SD, Buck LB. 2006. A second class of chemosensory receptors in the olfactory epithelium. Nature. 442(7103):645-50. [4]
  10. Pearson H. 2006. Mouse data hint at human pheromones. Nature. 442(7102):495. [5]
  11. Wyatt, Tristram D. (2003). Pheromones and Animal Behaviour: Communication by Smell and Taste. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48526-6.

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