Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis: Difference between revisions
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{{SK}} [[Marshall’s syndrome]], [[PFAPA syndrome]] | {{SK}} [[Marshall’s syndrome]], [[PFAPA syndrome]] | ||
==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
'''Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis''' (PFAPA) syndrome is a medical condition, typically starting in young children, in which high [[fever]] occurs periodically at intervals of about 3-5 weeks, frequently accompanied by [[aphthous ulcer]]s, [[pharyngitis]] and/or [[adenitis]]. The syndrome was described in [[1987]] and named two years later. | '''Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis''' (PFAPA) syndrome is a [[medical condition]], typically starting in young children, in which high [[fever]] occurs periodically at intervals of about 3-5 weeks, frequently accompanied by [[aphthous ulcer]]s, [[pharyngitis]] and/or [[adenitis]]. The syndrome was described in [[1987]] and named two years later. | ||
==Historical Perspective== | ==Historical Perspective== | ||
* Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis was first discribed by Dr. Marshall in 1987.<ref name="MarshallEdwards1987">{{cite journal|last1=Marshall|first1=Gary S.|last2=Edwards|first2=Kathryn M.|last3=Butler|first3=Joseph|last4=Lawton|first4=Alexander R.|title=Syndrome of periodic fever, pharyngitis, and aphthous stomatitis|journal=The Journal of Pediatrics|volume=110|issue=1|year=1987|pages=43–46|issn=00223476|doi=10.1016/S0022-3476(87)80285-8}}</ref> | * Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis was first discribed by Dr. Marshall in 1987.<ref name="MarshallEdwards1987">{{cite journal|last1=Marshall|first1=Gary S.|last2=Edwards|first2=Kathryn M.|last3=Butler|first3=Joseph|last4=Lawton|first4=Alexander R.|title=Syndrome of periodic fever, pharyngitis, and aphthous stomatitis|journal=The Journal of Pediatrics|volume=110|issue=1|year=1987|pages=43–46|issn=00223476|doi=10.1016/S0022-3476(87)80285-8}}</ref> | ||
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* There is no established system for the [[classification]] of periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis. | * There is no established system for the [[classification]] of periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis. | ||
==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
* The exact pathogenesis of periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis is not fully understood. | * The exact [[pathogenesis]] of periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis is not fully understood. | ||
* Dysregulated [[innate immune response]], as well as inappropriate [[T cell]] activity, have been proposed theoretically as the possible pathogenesis.<ref name="pmid23484126">{{cite journal |vauthors=Marcuzzi A, Piscianz E, Kleiner G, Tommasini A, Severini GM, Monasta L, Crovella S |title=Clinical genetic testing of periodic fever syndromes |journal=Biomed Res Int |volume=2013 |issue= |pages=501305 |date=2013 |pmid=23484126 |pmc=3581266 |doi=10.1155/2013/501305 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24134207">{{cite journal |vauthors=Førsvoll J, Kristoffersen EK, Oymar K |title=Elevated levels of CXCL10 in the Periodic Fever, Aphthous stomatitis, Pharyngitis and cervical Adenitis syndrome (PFAPA) during and between febrile episodes; an indication of a persistent activation of the innate immune system |journal=Pediatr Rheumatol Online J |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=38 |date=October 2013 |pmid=24134207 |pmc=3852891 |doi=10.1186/1546-0096-11-38 |url=}}</ref> | |||
* Consistent data with abnormal activity of [[T cells]] include increased levels of Th1 [[inflammatory response]] cytokines such as [[TNFα]], INF-γ, [[IL-6]], and IP-10 in [[blood]] samples of PFAPA patients. | |||
* Elevated [[IL-1|IL-1β]] production has also been observed in PFAPA [[patients]] which is consistent with abnormal [[innate immune response]]. | |||
* Studies trying to find a [[gene mutation]] associated with PFAPA syndrome resulted in controversy.<ref name="CazeneuveGeneviève2003">{{cite journal|last1=Cazeneuve|first1=Cécile|last2=Geneviève|first2=David|last3=Amselem|first3=Serge|last4=Hentgen|first4=Véronique|last5=Hau|first5=Isabelle|last6=Reinert|first6=Philippe|title=MEFV gene analysis in PFAPA|journal=The Journal of Pediatrics|volume=143|issue=1|year=2003|pages=140–141|issn=00223476|doi=10.1016/S0022-3476(03)00259-2}}</ref><ref name="ChandrakasanChiwane2013">{{cite journal|last1=Chandrakasan|first1=Shanmuganathan|last2=Chiwane|first2=Saurabh|last3=Adams|first3=Matthew|last4=Fathalla|first4=Basil M.|title=Clinical and Genetic Profile of Children with Periodic Fever Syndromes from a Single Medical Center in South East Michigan|journal=Journal of Clinical Immunology|volume=34|issue=1|year=2013|pages=104–113|issn=0271-9142|doi=10.1007/s10875-013-9960-8}}</ref> | |||
==Causes== | ==Causes== | ||
* PFAPA is frequently discussed together with other [[periodic fever syndrome]]s, but it is unknown whether the cause is primarily [[gene]]tic or due to an initial [[infection]].<ref name="SarahLongPFAPA" /> | * PFAPA is frequently discussed together with other [[periodic fever syndrome]]s, but it is unknown whether the [[cause]] is primarily [[gene]]tic or due to an initial [[infection]].<ref name="SarahLongPFAPA" /> | ||
==Differentiating Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis from Other Diseases== | ==Differentiating Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis from Other Diseases== | ||
* Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis must be differentiated from cyclic neutropenia, familial | * Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis must be [[differential diagnosis|differentiated]] from [[cyclic neutropenia]], [[familial mediterranean fever]] ([[FMF]]), [[familial Hibernian fever]] ([[Familial hibernian fever|FHF]]), and [[Hyperimmunoglobulinemia D with recurrent fever|hyperglobulinemia D syndrome]].<ref name="Feder1992">{{cite journal|last1=Feder|first1=Henry M.|title=Cimetidine treatment for periodic fever associated with aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and cervical adenitis|journal=The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal|volume=11|issue=4|year=1992|pages=318–321|issn=0891-3668|doi=10.1097/00006454-199204000-00011}}</ref><ref name="pmid10979131">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dahn KA, Glode MP, Chan KH |title=Periodic fever and pharyngitis in young children: a new disease for the otolaryngologist? |journal=Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. |volume=126 |issue=9 |pages=1146–9 |date=September 2000 |pmid=10979131 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="ThomasFeder1999">{{cite journal|last1=Thomas|first1=Kenneth Tyson|last2=Feder|first2=Henry M.|last3=Lawton|first3=Alexander R.|last4=Edwards|first4=Kathryn M.|title=Periodic fever syndrome in children|journal=The Journal of Pediatrics|volume=135|issue=1|year=1999|pages=15–21|issn=00223476|doi=10.1016/S0022-3476(99)70321-5}}</ref><ref name="pmid8846129">{{cite journal |vauthors=Scimeca PG, James-Herry AG, Weinblatt ME |title=Atypical PFAPA syndrome (periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, adenitis) in a young girl with Fanconi anemia |journal=J. Pediatr. Hematol. Oncol. |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=159–61 |date=May 1996 |pmid=8846129 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="PadehBrezniak1999">{{cite journal|last1=Padeh|first1=Shai|last2=Brezniak|first2=Naphtali|last3=Zemer|first3=Debora|last4=Pras|first4=Elon|last5=Livneh|first5=Avi|last6=Langevitz|first6=Pnina|last7=Migdal|first7=Amyel|last8=Pras|first8=Mordechai|last9=Passwell|first9=Justen H.|title=Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and adenopathy syndrome: Clinical characteristics and outcome|journal=The Journal of Pediatrics|volume=135|issue=1|year=1999|pages=98–101|issn=00223476|doi=10.1016/S0022-3476(99)70335-5}}</ref><ref name="SoharGafni1967">{{cite journal|last1=Sohar|first1=Ezra|last2=Gafni|first2=Joseph|last3=Pras|first3=Mordehai|last4=Heller|first4=Harry|title=Familial Mediterranean fever|journal=The American Journal of Medicine|volume=43|issue=2|year=1967|pages=227–253|issn=00029343|doi=10.1016/0002-9343(67)90167-2}}</ref> | ||
* For more information on PFAPA syndrome [[differential diagnosis]] please [[Familial mediterranean fever differential diagnosis|click here]]. | |||
==Epidemiology and Demographics== | ==Epidemiology and Demographics== | ||
* The [[incidence]] of PFAPA syndrome is approximately 23 per 100,000 children up to 5 years of age worldwide.<ref name="FørsvollKristoffersen2013">{{cite journal|last1=Førsvoll|first1=Jostein|last2=Kristoffersen|first2=Einar Klaeboe|last3=Øymar|first3=Knut|title=Incidence, clinical characteristics and outcome in Norwegian children with periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and cervical adenitis syndrome; a population-based study|journal=Acta Paediatrica|volume=102|issue=2|year=2013|pages=187–192|issn=08035253|doi=10.1111/apa.12069}}</ref> | * The [[incidence]] of PFAPA syndrome is approximately 23 per 100,000 children up to 5 years of age worldwide.<ref name="FørsvollKristoffersen2013">{{cite journal|last1=Førsvoll|first1=Jostein|last2=Kristoffersen|first2=Einar Klaeboe|last3=Øymar|first3=Knut|title=Incidence, clinical characteristics and outcome in Norwegian children with periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and cervical adenitis syndrome; a population-based study|journal=Acta Paediatrica|volume=102|issue=2|year=2013|pages=187–192|issn=08035253|doi=10.1111/apa.12069}}</ref> | ||
* The exact [[prevalence]] of PFAPA syndrome is not known, however it appears to be more frequent than other [[autoinflammatory disorders]].<ref name="HoferMahlaoui2006">{{cite journal|last1=Hofer|first1=Michaël|last2=Mahlaoui|first2=Nizar|last3=Prieur|first3=Anne-Marie|title=A child with a systemic febrile illness – differential diagnosis and management|journal=Best Practice & Research Clinical Rheumatology|volume=20|issue=4|year=2006|pages=627–640|issn=15216942|doi=10.1016/j.berh.2006.04.001}}</ref><ref name="pmid28343210">{{cite journal |vauthors=Semianchuk VB |title=Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and cervical adenitis (pfapa) syndrome in children |journal=Wiad. Lek. |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=144–147 |date=2017 |pmid=28343210 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | * The exact [[prevalence]] of PFAPA syndrome is not known, however it appears to be more frequent than other [[autoinflammatory disorders]].<ref name="HoferMahlaoui2006">{{cite journal|last1=Hofer|first1=Michaël|last2=Mahlaoui|first2=Nizar|last3=Prieur|first3=Anne-Marie|title=A child with a systemic febrile illness – differential diagnosis and management|journal=Best Practice & Research Clinical Rheumatology|volume=20|issue=4|year=2006|pages=627–640|issn=15216942|doi=10.1016/j.berh.2006.04.001}}</ref><ref name="pmid28343210">{{cite journal |vauthors=Semianchuk VB |title=Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and cervical adenitis (pfapa) syndrome in children |journal=Wiad. Lek. |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=144–147 |date=2017 |pmid=28343210 |doi= |url=}}</ref> | ||
* PFAPA syndrome more commonly affects [[children]] of 2-5 years of age.<ref name="FederSalazar2009">{{cite journal|last1=Feder|first1=HM|last2=Salazar|first2=JC|title=A clinical review of 105 patients with PFAPA (a periodic fever syndrome)|journal=Acta Paediatrica|year=2009|issn=08035253|doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01554.x}}</ref> | |||
* There is also reports of adult onset PFAPA syndrome.<ref name="pmid18605359">{{cite journal |vauthors=Padeh S, Stoffman N, Berkun Y |title=Periodic fever accompanied by aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and cervical adenitis syndrome (PFAPA syndrome) in adults |journal=Isr. Med. Assoc. J. |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=358–60 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18605359 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27251674">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rigante D, Vitale A, Natale MF, Lopalco G, Andreozzi L, Frediani B, D'Errico F, Iannone F, Cantarini L |title=A comprehensive comparison between pediatric and adult patients with periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and cervical adenopathy (PFAPA) syndrome |journal=Clin. Rheumatol. |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=463–468 |date=February 2017 |pmid=27251674 |doi=10.1007/s10067-016-3317-7 |url=}}</ref> | |||
* There is no [[racial]] predilection to PFAPA syndrome. | * There is no [[racial]] predilection to PFAPA syndrome. | ||
* PFAPA syndrome affects men and women equally. | * PFAPA syndrome affects [[men]] and women equally. | ||
==Risk Factors== | ==Risk Factors== | ||
* There are no established risk factors for PFAPA syndrome. | * There are no established [[risk factors]] for PFAPA syndrome. | ||
==Screening== | ==Screening== | ||
* There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for PFAPA syndrome. | * There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine [[screening]] for PFAPA syndrome. | ||
==Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis== | ==Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis== | ||
* According to present research, PFAPA does not lead to other diseases and spontaneously resolves as the child gets older, with no long term effects.<ref name=" | * [[Patients]] with PFAPA syndrome develop the manifestations early in childhood, between 2-5 years of age.<ref name="GattornoCaorsi2009">{{cite journal|last1=Gattorno|first1=M.|last2=Caorsi|first2=R.|last3=Meini|first3=A.|last4=Cattalini|first4=M.|last5=Federici|first5=S.|last6=Zulian|first6=F.|last7=Cortis|first7=E.|last8=Calcagno|first8=G.|last9=Tommasini|first9=A.|last10=Consolini|first10=R.|last11=Simonini|first11=G.|last12=Pelagatti|first12=M. A.|last13=Baldi|first13=M.|last14=Ceccherini|first14=I.|last15=Plebani|first15=A.|last16=Frenkel|first16=J.|last17=Sormani|first17=M. P.|last18=Martini|first18=A.|title=Differentiating PFAPA Syndrome From Monogenic Periodic Fevers|journal=PEDIATRICS|volume=124|issue=4|year=2009|pages=e721–e728|issn=0031-4005|doi=10.1542/peds.2009-0088}}</ref><ref name="pmid10393612">{{cite journal |vauthors=Padeh S, Brezniak N, Zemer D, Pras E, Livneh A, Langevitz P, Migdal A, Pras M, Passwell JH |title=Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and adenopathy syndrome: clinical characteristics and outcome |journal=J. Pediatr. |volume=135 |issue=1 |pages=98–101 |date=July 1999 |pmid=10393612 |doi=10.1016/s0022-3476(99)70335-5 |url=}}</ref><ref name="FederSalazar2009">{{cite journal|last1=Feder|first1=HM|last2=Salazar|first2=JC|title=A clinical review of 105 patients with PFAPA (a periodic fever syndrome)|journal=Acta Paediatrica|year=2009|issn=08035253|doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01554.x}}</ref> | ||
* It manifests with periods of high [[fevers]] lasting for 3 to 6 days along with [[aphthous ulcers]] and non-infectious, [[exudative]] [[pharyngitis]]. | |||
* [[Symptoms]] usually occur every 21 to 28 days. | |||
* In between episodes, and even during the episodes, the children appear healthy. | |||
* According to present research, PFAPA does not lead to other [[diseases]] and spontaneously resolves as the child gets older, with no long term effects.<ref name="PadehBrezniak1999">{{cite journal|last1=Padeh|first1=Shai|last2=Brezniak|first2=Naphtali|last3=Zemer|first3=Debora|last4=Pras|first4=Elon|last5=Livneh|first5=Avi|last6=Langevitz|first6=Pnina|last7=Migdal|first7=Amyel|last8=Pras|first8=Mordechai|last9=Passwell|first9=Justen H.|title=Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and adenopathy syndrome: Clinical characteristics and outcome|journal=The Journal of Pediatrics|volume=135|issue=1|year=1999|pages=98–101|issn=00223476|doi=10.1016/S0022-3476(99)70335-5}}</ref> | |||
==Diagnosis== | ==Diagnosis== | ||
===Diagnostic Study of Choice=== | ===Diagnostic Study of Choice=== | ||
* The diagnosis of PFAPA syndrome is made when the following diagnostic criteria are met:<ref name="ThomasFeder1999">{{cite journal|last1=Thomas|first1=Kenneth Tyson|last2=Feder|first2=Henry M.|last3=Lawton|first3=Alexander R.|last4=Edwards|first4=Kathryn M.|title=Periodic fever syndrome in children|journal=The Journal of Pediatrics|volume=135|issue=1|year=1999|pages=15–21|issn=00223476|doi=10.1016/S0022-3476(99)70321-5}}</ref> | * The [[diagnosis]] of PFAPA syndrome is made when the following [[diagnostic]] criteria are met:<ref name="ThomasFeder1999">{{cite journal|last1=Thomas|first1=Kenneth Tyson|last2=Feder|first2=Henry M.|last3=Lawton|first3=Alexander R.|last4=Edwards|first4=Kathryn M.|title=Periodic fever syndrome in children|journal=The Journal of Pediatrics|volume=135|issue=1|year=1999|pages=15–21|issn=00223476|doi=10.1016/S0022-3476(99)70321-5}}</ref> | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|+ | |+ | ||
| Line 53: | Line 49: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | | ||
* Regularly recurring fevers with an early age of onset (<5 years of age) | * Regularly recurring [[fevers]] with an early age of onset (<5 years of age) | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | | ||
* Constitutional symptoms in the absence of upper respiratory infection with at least 1 of the following clinical signs: | *[[Constitutional symptoms]] in the absence of [[upper respiratory infection]] with at least 1 of the following [[clinical signs]]: | ||
** Aphthous stomatitis | **[[Aphthous stomatitis]] | ||
** Cervical lymphadenitis | **[[Cervical]] [[lymphadenitis]] | ||
** Pharyngitis | **[[Pharyngitis]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | | ||
* Exclusion of cyclic neutropenia | * Exclusion of [[cyclic neutropenia]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | | ||
* Completely asymptomatic interval between episodes | * Completely [[asymptomatic]] interval between episodes | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | | ||
* Normal growth and development | * Normal [[growth]] and [[development]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
* [[Diagnosis]] of PFAPA syndrome also requires exclusion of possible [[infection]], [[immunodeficiency]], monogenic [[auto-inflammatory disorders]], and [[cyclic neutropenia]].<ref name="AliSartori-Valinotti2016">{{cite journal|last1=Ali|first1=Nora S.|last2=Sartori-Valinotti|first2=Julio C.|last3=Bruce|first3=Alison J.|title=Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and adenitis (PFAPA) syndrome|journal=Clinics in Dermatology|volume=34|issue=4|year=2016|pages=482–486|issn=0738081X|doi=10.1016/j.clindermatol.2016.02.021}}</ref> | |||
===History and Symptoms=== | ===History and Symptoms=== | ||
* The key [[symptoms]] of PFAPA are those in its name: periodic high [[fever]], [[aphthous ulcer]]s, [[pharyngitis]] and/or [[adenitis]].<ref name="SarahLongPFAPA">{{cite journal | |||
The key symptoms of PFAPA are those in its name: periodic high [[fever]] | |||
| last = Long | | last = Long | ||
| first = Sarah S. | | first = Sarah S. | ||
| Line 89: | Line 85: | ||
| doi = | | doi = | ||
| id = | | id = | ||
| accessdate = 2008-03-07}}</ref> | | accessdate = 2008-03-07}}</ref> | ||
* Other less frequent [[symptoms]] are [[abdominal pain]], [[diarrhea]], [[headache]], [[skin rash]], and [[arthralgia]].<ref name="FederSalazar2009">{{cite journal|last1=Feder|first1=HM|last2=Salazar|first2=JC|title=A clinical review of 105 patients with PFAPA (a periodic fever syndrome)|journal=Acta Paediatrica|year=2009|issn=08035253|doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01554.x}}</ref><ref name="pmid24505122">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hofer M, Pillet P, Cochard MM, Berg S, Krol P, Kone-Paut I, Rigante D, Hentgen V, Anton J, Brik R, Neven B, Touitou I, Kaiser D, Duquesne A, Wouters C, Gattorno M |title=International periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, cervical adenitis syndrome cohort: description of distinct phenotypes in 301 patients |journal=Rheumatology (Oxford) |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=1125–9 |date=June 2014 |pmid=24505122 |doi=10.1093/rheumatology/ket460 |url=}}</ref> | |||
===Physical Examination=== | ===Physical Examination=== | ||
* [[Physical examination]] of [[patients]] with PFAPA syndrome may show high [[fever]], [[exudative]] [[pharyngitis]], [[aphthous ulcers]], and [[cervical]] [[lymphadenopathy]].<ref name="pmid24505122">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hofer M, Pillet P, Cochard MM, Berg S, Krol P, Kone-Paut I, Rigante D, Hentgen V, Anton J, Brik R, Neven B, Touitou I, Kaiser D, Duquesne A, Wouters C, Gattorno M |title=International periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, cervical adenitis syndrome cohort: description of distinct phenotypes in 301 patients |journal=Rheumatology (Oxford) |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=1125–9 |date=June 2014 |pmid=24505122 |doi=10.1093/rheumatology/ket460 |url=}}</ref> | |||
===Laboratory Findings=== | ===Laboratory Findings=== | ||
* [[Laboratory findings]] of [[patients]] with PFAPA syndrome may include [[leukocytosis]] (with a preponderance of [[neutrophils]]), increases of the [[inflammatory]] markers ([[ESR]] and [[CRP]]) during [[febrile]] episodes, normal [[inflammatory]] markers in between episodes of [[fever]].<ref name="FederSalazar2009">{{cite journal|last1=Feder|first1=HM|last2=Salazar|first2=JC|title=A clinical review of 105 patients with PFAPA (a periodic fever syndrome)|journal=Acta Paediatrica|year=2009|issn=08035253|doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01554.x}}</ref><ref name="pmid24505122">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hofer M, Pillet P, Cochard MM, Berg S, Krol P, Kone-Paut I, Rigante D, Hentgen V, Anton J, Brik R, Neven B, Touitou I, Kaiser D, Duquesne A, Wouters C, Gattorno M |title=International periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, cervical adenitis syndrome cohort: description of distinct phenotypes in 301 patients |journal=Rheumatology (Oxford) |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=1125–9 |date=June 2014 |pmid=24505122 |doi=10.1093/rheumatology/ket460 |url=}}</ref> | |||
** Quantitative [[immunoglobulin]] levels have been demonstrated to be normal or near normal. | |||
** At the very onset of fever, the [[inflammatory]] markers may be normal. | |||
*[[CD64 (biology)|CD64]] and [[CXCL10]] has been proposed as potential specific [[Biomarkers|bio-markers]] of PFAPA syndrome. However, more studies are needed to confirm this [[Association (statistics)|association]].<ref name="StojanovLapidus2011">{{cite journal|last1=Stojanov|first1=S.|last2=Lapidus|first2=S.|last3=Chitkara|first3=P.|last4=Feder|first4=H.|last5=Salazar|first5=J. C.|last6=Fleisher|first6=T. A.|last7=Brown|first7=M. R.|last8=Edwards|first8=K. M.|last9=Ward|first9=M. M.|last10=Colbert|first10=R. A.|last11=Sun|first11=H.-W.|last12=Wood|first12=G. M.|last13=Barham|first13=B. K.|last14=Jones|first14=A.|last15=Aksentijevich|first15=I.|last16=Goldbach-Mansky|first16=R.|last17=Athreya|first17=B.|last18=Barron|first18=K. S.|last19=Kastner|first19=D. L.|title=Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and adenitis (PFAPA) is a disorder of innate immunity and Th1 activation responsive to IL-1 blockade|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=17|year=2011|pages=7148–7153|issn=0027-8424|doi=10.1073/pnas.1103681108}}</ref><ref name="FørsvollKristoffersen2013">{{cite journal|last1=Førsvoll|first1=Jostein|last2=Kristoffersen|first2=Einar Klæboe|last3=Øymar|first3=Knut|title=Elevated levels of CXCL10 in the Periodic Fever, Aphthous stomatitis, Pharyngitis and cervical Adenitis syndrome (PFAPA) during and between febrile episodes; an indication of a persistent activation of the innate immune system|journal=Pediatric Rheumatology|volume=11|issue=1|year=2013|issn=1546-0096|doi=10.1186/1546-0096-11-38}}</ref> | |||
===Electrocardiogram=== | ===Electrocardiogram=== | ||
* There are no ECG findings associated with PFAPA syndrome. | * There are no [[ECG]] findings associated with PFAPA syndrome. | ||
===X-ray=== | ===X-ray=== | ||
* There are no x-ray findings associated with PFAPA syndrome. | * There are no [[x-ray]] findings associated with PFAPA syndrome. | ||
===Echocardiography or Ultrasound=== | ===Echocardiography or Ultrasound=== | ||
* There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with PFAPA | * There are no [[echocardiography]]/[[ultrasound]] findings associated with PFAPA syndrome. | ||
===CT Scan=== | ===CT Scan=== | ||
* There are no CT scan findings associated with PFAPA syndrome. | * There are no [[CT scan]] findings associated with PFAPA syndrome. | ||
===MRI=== | ===MRI=== | ||
* There are no MRI findings associated with PFAPA syndrome. | * There are no [[MRI]] findings associated with PFAPA syndrome. | ||
===Other Imaging Findings=== | ===Other Imaging Findings=== | ||
* There are no other imaging findings associated with PFAPA syndrome. | * There are no other [[imaging]] findings associated with PFAPA syndrome. | ||
===Other Diagnostic Studies=== | ===Other Diagnostic Studies=== | ||
* There are no other diagnostic studies associated with PFAPA syndrome. | * There are no other [[diagnostic]] studies [[Association (statistics)|associated]] with PFAPA syndrome. | ||
==Treatment== | ==Treatment== | ||
===Medical Therapy=== | ===Medical Therapy=== | ||
* There is no treatment for PFAPA syndrome; the mainstay of therapy is supportive care. | * There is no treatment for PFAPA syndrome; the mainstay of therapy is supportive care. | ||
* A possible treatment for PFAPA is a single dose of [[prednisone]] (2 m[[g]] per k[[g]] body mass) at the beginning of each fever episode. | * A possible treatment for PFAPA is a single dose of [[prednisone]] (2 m[[g]] per k[[g]] body mass) at the beginning of each [[fever]] episode. | ||
* The single-dose usually terminates the fever within several hours. However, in some children, prednisone causes fever episodes to occur more frequently (and more regularly).<ref name="padeh_PFAPA" /> | * The single-dose usually terminates the fever within several hours. However, in some children, [[prednisone]] causes fever episodes to occur more frequently (and more regularly).<ref name="padeh_PFAPA" /> | ||
* Daily administration of [[colchicine]] has been associated with decreased frequency of episodes.<ref name="pmid18462461">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tasher D, Stein M, Dalal I, Somekh E |title=Colchicine prophylaxis for frequent periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis episodes |journal=Acta Paediatr. |volume=97 |issue=8 |pages=1090–2 |date=August 2008 |pmid=18462461 |doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.00837.x |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27068612">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dusser P, Hentgen V, Neven B, Koné-Paut I |title=Is colchicine an effective treatment in periodic fever, aphtous stomatitis, pharyngitis, cervical adenitis (PFAPA) syndrome? |journal=Joint Bone Spine |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=406–11 |date=July 2016 |pmid=27068612 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2015.08.017 |url=}}</ref> | |||
*[[IL-1]] blockade with drugs, such as [[anakinra]], [[rilonacept]], and [[canakinumab]] have also indicated promising results.<ref name="StojanovLapidus2011">{{cite journal|last1=Stojanov|first1=S.|last2=Lapidus|first2=S.|last3=Chitkara|first3=P.|last4=Feder|first4=H.|last5=Salazar|first5=J. C.|last6=Fleisher|first6=T. A.|last7=Brown|first7=M. R.|last8=Edwards|first8=K. M.|last9=Ward|first9=M. M.|last10=Colbert|first10=R. A.|last11=Sun|first11=H.-W.|last12=Wood|first12=G. M.|last13=Barham|first13=B. K.|last14=Jones|first14=A.|last15=Aksentijevich|first15=I.|last16=Goldbach-Mansky|first16=R.|last17=Athreya|first17=B.|last18=Barron|first18=K. S.|last19=Kastner|first19=D. L.|title=Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and adenitis (PFAPA) is a disorder of innate immunity and Th1 activation responsive to IL-1 blockade|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=17|year=2011|pages=7148–7153|issn=0027-8424|doi=10.1073/pnas.1103681108}}</ref><ref name="JesusGoldbach-Mansky2014">{{cite journal|last1=Jesus|first1=Adriana A.|last2=Goldbach-Mansky|first2=Raphaela|title=IL-1 Blockade in Autoinflammatory Syndromes|journal=Annual Review of Medicine|volume=65|issue=1|year=2014|pages=223–244|issn=0066-4219|doi=10.1146/annurev-med-061512-150641}}</ref> | |||
** Implication of these [[medications]] have resulted in the shortened course of the [[disease]] as well as a complete [[resolution]] of [[symptoms]] in some cases. | |||
===Surgery=== | ===Surgery=== | ||
* | *[[Tonsillectomy|Adenotonsillectomy]] is recommended for patients with PFAPA syndrome who failed to response to [[medical treatment]].<ref name="LicameliJeffrey2008">{{cite journal|last1=Licameli|first1=Greg|last2=Jeffrey|first2=Jessica|last3=Luz|first3=Jennifer|last4=Jones|first4=Dwight|last5=Kenna|first5=Margaret|title=Effect of Adenotonsillectomy in PFAPA Syndrome|journal=Archives of Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery|volume=134|issue=2|year=2008|pages=136|issn=0886-4470|doi=10.1001/archoto.2007.7}}</ref><ref name="LicameliLawton2012">{{cite journal|last1=Licameli|first1=Greg|last2=Lawton|first2=Maranda|last3=Kenna|first3=Margaret|last4=Dedeoglu|first4=Fatma|title=Long-term Surgical Outcomes of Adenotonsillectomy for PFAPA Syndrome|journal=Archives of Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery|volume=138|issue=10|year=2012|pages=902|issn=0886-4470|doi=10.1001/2013.jamaoto.313}}</ref> | ||
==Primary Prevention== | * However, recent studies reported the moderate quality of evidence which supports the role of [[surgery]] in the management of these [[patients]]. This report suggests evaluation of risks and benefits before performing the [[surgery]].<ref name="BurtonPollard2014">{{cite journal|last1=Burton|first1=Martin J|last2=Pollard|first2=Andrew J|last3=Ramsden|first3=James D|last4=Chong|first4=Lee Yee|last5=Venekamp|first5=Roderick P|title=Tonsillectomy for periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and cervical adenitis syndrome (PFAPA)|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|year=2014|issn=14651858|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008669.pub2}}</ref> | ||
* There are no established measures for the primary prevention of PFAPA syndrome. | |||
==Secondary Prevention== | ===Primary Prevention=== | ||
* There are no established measures for the secondary prevention of PFAPA syndrome. | * There are no established measures for the [[primary prevention]] of PFAPA syndrome. | ||
===Secondary Prevention=== | |||
* There are no established measures for the [[secondary prevention]] of PFAPA syndrome. | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{reflist|3}} | {{reflist|3}} | ||
[[de:PFAPA-Syndrom]] | [[de:PFAPA-Syndrom]] | ||
Latest revision as of 19:45, 24 October 2019
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sahar Memar Montazerin, M.D.[2]
Synonyms and keywords: Marshall’s syndrome, PFAPA syndrome
Overview
Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis (PFAPA) syndrome is a medical condition, typically starting in young children, in which high fever occurs periodically at intervals of about 3-5 weeks, frequently accompanied by aphthous ulcers, pharyngitis and/or adenitis. The syndrome was described in 1987 and named two years later.
Historical Perspective
- Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis was first discribed by Dr. Marshall in 1987.[1]
- Initially it was named fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis (FAPA) syndrome, later was changed to periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis (PFAPA) syndrome to further emphasize on its periodic nature, the main feature of this disorder.[2]
Classification
- There is no established system for the classification of periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis.
Pathophysiology
- The exact pathogenesis of periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis is not fully understood.
- Dysregulated innate immune response, as well as inappropriate T cell activity, have been proposed theoretically as the possible pathogenesis.[3][4]
- Consistent data with abnormal activity of T cells include increased levels of Th1 inflammatory response cytokines such as TNFα, INF-γ, IL-6, and IP-10 in blood samples of PFAPA patients.
- Elevated IL-1β production has also been observed in PFAPA patients which is consistent with abnormal innate immune response.
- Studies trying to find a gene mutation associated with PFAPA syndrome resulted in controversy.[5][6]
Causes
- PFAPA is frequently discussed together with other periodic fever syndromes, but it is unknown whether the cause is primarily genetic or due to an initial infection.[7]
Differentiating Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis from Other Diseases
- Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis must be differentiated from cyclic neutropenia, familial mediterranean fever (FMF), familial Hibernian fever (FHF), and hyperglobulinemia D syndrome.[8][9][10][11][12][13]
- For more information on PFAPA syndrome differential diagnosis please click here.
Epidemiology and Demographics
- The incidence of PFAPA syndrome is approximately 23 per 100,000 children up to 5 years of age worldwide.[14]
- The exact prevalence of PFAPA syndrome is not known, however it appears to be more frequent than other autoinflammatory disorders.[15][16]
- PFAPA syndrome more commonly affects children of 2-5 years of age.[17]
- There is also reports of adult onset PFAPA syndrome.[18][19]
- There is no racial predilection to PFAPA syndrome.
- PFAPA syndrome affects men and women equally.
Risk Factors
- There are no established risk factors for PFAPA syndrome.
Screening
- There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for PFAPA syndrome.
Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis
- Patients with PFAPA syndrome develop the manifestations early in childhood, between 2-5 years of age.[20][21][17]
- It manifests with periods of high fevers lasting for 3 to 6 days along with aphthous ulcers and non-infectious, exudative pharyngitis.
- Symptoms usually occur every 21 to 28 days.
- In between episodes, and even during the episodes, the children appear healthy.
- According to present research, PFAPA does not lead to other diseases and spontaneously resolves as the child gets older, with no long term effects.[12]
Diagnosis
Diagnostic Study of Choice
- The diagnosis of PFAPA syndrome is made when the following diagnostic criteria are met:[10]
| Diagnostic criteria of PFAPA |
|
|
|
|
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- Diagnosis of PFAPA syndrome also requires exclusion of possible infection, immunodeficiency, monogenic auto-inflammatory disorders, and cyclic neutropenia.[22]
History and Symptoms
- The key symptoms of PFAPA are those in its name: periodic high fever, aphthous ulcers, pharyngitis and/or adenitis.[7]
- Other less frequent symptoms are abdominal pain, diarrhea, headache, skin rash, and arthralgia.[17][23]
Physical Examination
- Physical examination of patients with PFAPA syndrome may show high fever, exudative pharyngitis, aphthous ulcers, and cervical lymphadenopathy.[23]
Laboratory Findings
- Laboratory findings of patients with PFAPA syndrome may include leukocytosis (with a preponderance of neutrophils), increases of the inflammatory markers (ESR and CRP) during febrile episodes, normal inflammatory markers in between episodes of fever.[17][23]
- Quantitative immunoglobulin levels have been demonstrated to be normal or near normal.
- At the very onset of fever, the inflammatory markers may be normal.
- CD64 and CXCL10 has been proposed as potential specific bio-markers of PFAPA syndrome. However, more studies are needed to confirm this association.[24][14]
Electrocardiogram
- There are no ECG findings associated with PFAPA syndrome.
X-ray
- There are no x-ray findings associated with PFAPA syndrome.
Echocardiography or Ultrasound
- There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with PFAPA syndrome.
CT Scan
- There are no CT scan findings associated with PFAPA syndrome.
MRI
- There are no MRI findings associated with PFAPA syndrome.
Other Imaging Findings
- There are no other imaging findings associated with PFAPA syndrome.
Other Diagnostic Studies
- There are no other diagnostic studies associated with PFAPA syndrome.
Treatment
Medical Therapy
- There is no treatment for PFAPA syndrome; the mainstay of therapy is supportive care.
- A possible treatment for PFAPA is a single dose of prednisone (2 mg per kg body mass) at the beginning of each fever episode.
- The single-dose usually terminates the fever within several hours. However, in some children, prednisone causes fever episodes to occur more frequently (and more regularly).[25]
- Daily administration of colchicine has been associated with decreased frequency of episodes.[26][27]
- IL-1 blockade with drugs, such as anakinra, rilonacept, and canakinumab have also indicated promising results.[24][28]
- Implication of these medications have resulted in the shortened course of the disease as well as a complete resolution of symptoms in some cases.
Surgery
- Adenotonsillectomy is recommended for patients with PFAPA syndrome who failed to response to medical treatment.[29][30]
- However, recent studies reported the moderate quality of evidence which supports the role of surgery in the management of these patients. This report suggests evaluation of risks and benefits before performing the surgery.[31]
Primary Prevention
- There are no established measures for the primary prevention of PFAPA syndrome.
Secondary Prevention
- There are no established measures for the secondary prevention of PFAPA syndrome.
References
- ↑ Marshall, Gary S.; Edwards, Kathryn M.; Butler, Joseph; Lawton, Alexander R. (1987). "Syndrome of periodic fever, pharyngitis, and aphthous stomatitis". The Journal of Pediatrics. 110 (1): 43–46. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(87)80285-8. ISSN 0022-3476.
- ↑ "PFAPA SYNDROME : The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal".
- ↑ Marcuzzi A, Piscianz E, Kleiner G, Tommasini A, Severini GM, Monasta L, Crovella S (2013). "Clinical genetic testing of periodic fever syndromes". Biomed Res Int. 2013: 501305. doi:10.1155/2013/501305. PMC 3581266. PMID 23484126.
- ↑ Førsvoll J, Kristoffersen EK, Oymar K (October 2013). "Elevated levels of CXCL10 in the Periodic Fever, Aphthous stomatitis, Pharyngitis and cervical Adenitis syndrome (PFAPA) during and between febrile episodes; an indication of a persistent activation of the innate immune system". Pediatr Rheumatol Online J. 11 (1): 38. doi:10.1186/1546-0096-11-38. PMC 3852891. PMID 24134207.
- ↑ Cazeneuve, Cécile; Geneviève, David; Amselem, Serge; Hentgen, Véronique; Hau, Isabelle; Reinert, Philippe (2003). "MEFV gene analysis in PFAPA". The Journal of Pediatrics. 143 (1): 140–141. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(03)00259-2. ISSN 0022-3476.
- ↑ Chandrakasan, Shanmuganathan; Chiwane, Saurabh; Adams, Matthew; Fathalla, Basil M. (2013). "Clinical and Genetic Profile of Children with Periodic Fever Syndromes from a Single Medical Center in South East Michigan". Journal of Clinical Immunology. 34 (1): 104–113. doi:10.1007/s10875-013-9960-8. ISSN 0271-9142.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Long, Sarah S. (1999). "Syndrome of Periodic Fever, Aphthous stomatitis, Pharyngitis, and Adenitis (PFAPA) - What it isn't. What is it?". Journal of Pediatrics. Mosby, Inc. 135: 1–5. Retrieved 2008-03-07.
- ↑ Feder, Henry M. (1992). "Cimetidine treatment for periodic fever associated with aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and cervical adenitis". The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 11 (4): 318–321. doi:10.1097/00006454-199204000-00011. ISSN 0891-3668.
- ↑ Dahn KA, Glode MP, Chan KH (September 2000). "Periodic fever and pharyngitis in young children: a new disease for the otolaryngologist?". Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 126 (9): 1146–9. PMID 10979131.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Thomas, Kenneth Tyson; Feder, Henry M.; Lawton, Alexander R.; Edwards, Kathryn M. (1999). "Periodic fever syndrome in children". The Journal of Pediatrics. 135 (1): 15–21. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(99)70321-5. ISSN 0022-3476.
- ↑ Scimeca PG, James-Herry AG, Weinblatt ME (May 1996). "Atypical PFAPA syndrome (periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, adenitis) in a young girl with Fanconi anemia". J. Pediatr. Hematol. Oncol. 18 (2): 159–61. PMID 8846129.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Padeh, Shai; Brezniak, Naphtali; Zemer, Debora; Pras, Elon; Livneh, Avi; Langevitz, Pnina; Migdal, Amyel; Pras, Mordechai; Passwell, Justen H. (1999). "Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and adenopathy syndrome: Clinical characteristics and outcome". The Journal of Pediatrics. 135 (1): 98–101. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(99)70335-5. ISSN 0022-3476.
- ↑ Sohar, Ezra; Gafni, Joseph; Pras, Mordehai; Heller, Harry (1967). "Familial Mediterranean fever". The American Journal of Medicine. 43 (2): 227–253. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(67)90167-2. ISSN 0002-9343.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Førsvoll, Jostein; Kristoffersen, Einar Klaeboe; Øymar, Knut (2013). "Incidence, clinical characteristics and outcome in Norwegian children with periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and cervical adenitis syndrome; a population-based study". Acta Paediatrica. 102 (2): 187–192. doi:10.1111/apa.12069. ISSN 0803-5253.
- ↑ Hofer, Michaël; Mahlaoui, Nizar; Prieur, Anne-Marie (2006). "A child with a systemic febrile illness – differential diagnosis and management". Best Practice & Research Clinical Rheumatology. 20 (4): 627–640. doi:10.1016/j.berh.2006.04.001. ISSN 1521-6942.
- ↑ Semianchuk VB (2017). "Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and cervical adenitis (pfapa) syndrome in children". Wiad. Lek. 70 (1): 144–147. PMID 28343210.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Feder, HM; Salazar, JC (2009). "A clinical review of 105 patients with PFAPA (a periodic fever syndrome)". Acta Paediatrica. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2009.01554.x. ISSN 0803-5253.
- ↑ Padeh S, Stoffman N, Berkun Y (May 2008). "Periodic fever accompanied by aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and cervical adenitis syndrome (PFAPA syndrome) in adults". Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 10 (5): 358–60. PMID 18605359.
- ↑ Rigante D, Vitale A, Natale MF, Lopalco G, Andreozzi L, Frediani B, D'Errico F, Iannone F, Cantarini L (February 2017). "A comprehensive comparison between pediatric and adult patients with periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and cervical adenopathy (PFAPA) syndrome". Clin. Rheumatol. 36 (2): 463–468. doi:10.1007/s10067-016-3317-7. PMID 27251674.
- ↑ Gattorno, M.; Caorsi, R.; Meini, A.; Cattalini, M.; Federici, S.; Zulian, F.; Cortis, E.; Calcagno, G.; Tommasini, A.; Consolini, R.; Simonini, G.; Pelagatti, M. A.; Baldi, M.; Ceccherini, I.; Plebani, A.; Frenkel, J.; Sormani, M. P.; Martini, A. (2009). "Differentiating PFAPA Syndrome From Monogenic Periodic Fevers". PEDIATRICS. 124 (4): e721–e728. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-0088. ISSN 0031-4005.
- ↑ Padeh S, Brezniak N, Zemer D, Pras E, Livneh A, Langevitz P, Migdal A, Pras M, Passwell JH (July 1999). "Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and adenopathy syndrome: clinical characteristics and outcome". J. Pediatr. 135 (1): 98–101. doi:10.1016/s0022-3476(99)70335-5. PMID 10393612.
- ↑ Ali, Nora S.; Sartori-Valinotti, Julio C.; Bruce, Alison J. (2016). "Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and adenitis (PFAPA) syndrome". Clinics in Dermatology. 34 (4): 482–486. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2016.02.021. ISSN 0738-081X.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Hofer M, Pillet P, Cochard MM, Berg S, Krol P, Kone-Paut I, Rigante D, Hentgen V, Anton J, Brik R, Neven B, Touitou I, Kaiser D, Duquesne A, Wouters C, Gattorno M (June 2014). "International periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, cervical adenitis syndrome cohort: description of distinct phenotypes in 301 patients". Rheumatology (Oxford). 53 (6): 1125–9. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/ket460. PMID 24505122.
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Stojanov, S.; Lapidus, S.; Chitkara, P.; Feder, H.; Salazar, J. C.; Fleisher, T. A.; Brown, M. R.; Edwards, K. M.; Ward, M. M.; Colbert, R. A.; Sun, H.-W.; Wood, G. M.; Barham, B. K.; Jones, A.; Aksentijevich, I.; Goldbach-Mansky, R.; Athreya, B.; Barron, K. S.; Kastner, D. L. (2011). "Periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and adenitis (PFAPA) is a disorder of innate immunity and Th1 activation responsive to IL-1 blockade". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (17): 7148–7153. doi:10.1073/pnas.1103681108. ISSN 0027-8424.
- ↑
- ↑ Tasher D, Stein M, Dalal I, Somekh E (August 2008). "Colchicine prophylaxis for frequent periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis episodes". Acta Paediatr. 97 (8): 1090–2. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.00837.x. PMID 18462461.
- ↑ Dusser P, Hentgen V, Neven B, Koné-Paut I (July 2016). "Is colchicine an effective treatment in periodic fever, aphtous stomatitis, pharyngitis, cervical adenitis (PFAPA) syndrome?". Joint Bone Spine. 83 (4): 406–11. doi:10.1016/j.jbspin.2015.08.017. PMID 27068612.
- ↑ Jesus, Adriana A.; Goldbach-Mansky, Raphaela (2014). "IL-1 Blockade in Autoinflammatory Syndromes". Annual Review of Medicine. 65 (1): 223–244. doi:10.1146/annurev-med-061512-150641. ISSN 0066-4219.
- ↑ Licameli, Greg; Jeffrey, Jessica; Luz, Jennifer; Jones, Dwight; Kenna, Margaret (2008). "Effect of Adenotonsillectomy in PFAPA Syndrome". Archives of Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery. 134 (2): 136. doi:10.1001/archoto.2007.7. ISSN 0886-4470.
- ↑ Licameli, Greg; Lawton, Maranda; Kenna, Margaret; Dedeoglu, Fatma (2012). "Long-term Surgical Outcomes of Adenotonsillectomy for PFAPA Syndrome". Archives of Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery. 138 (10): 902. doi:10.1001/2013.jamaoto.313. ISSN 0886-4470.
- ↑ Burton, Martin J; Pollard, Andrew J; Ramsden, James D; Chong, Lee Yee; Venekamp, Roderick P (2014). "Tonsillectomy for periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and cervical adenitis syndrome (PFAPA)". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008669.pub2. ISSN 1465-1858.