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* Exposure to cancer-causing chemicals such as uranium, beryllium, vinyl chloride, nickel chromates, coal products, mustard gas, chloromethyl ethers, gasoline, and diesel exhaust | * Exposure to cancer-causing chemicals such as uranium, beryllium, vinyl chloride, nickel chromates, coal products, mustard gas, chloromethyl ethers, gasoline, and diesel exhaust | ||
'''Smoking''' | |||
*Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of lung cancer. | *Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of lung cancer. | ||
*Both active and passive smoking<ref>{{cite web | last =CDC | authorlink =Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |title =1986 Surgeon General's report: the health consequences of involuntary smoking | publisher =CDC | date =Dec 1986 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00000837.htm | pmid =3097495 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite book | last =National Research Council | title =Environmental tobacco smoke: measuring exposures and assessing health effects | publisher =National Academy Press | date =1986 | url =http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=943#toc | isbn =0-309-07456-8 }}<br />* {{cite paper | author =EPA | authorlink=United States Environmental Protection Agency | title =Respiratory health effects of passive smoking: lung cancer and other disorders | publisher =EPA | date =1992 | url =http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=2835 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =California Environmental Protection Agency | title =Health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke | journal =Tobacco Control | volume =6 | issue =4 | pages =346–353 | date =1997 |url =http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/tobacco/caets/ets-main.htm | pmid =9583639 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =CDC | authorlink=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | title =State-specific prevalence of current cigarette smoking among adults, and policies and attitudes about secondhand smoke—United States, 2000 | journal =Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | volume =50 | issue =49 | pages =1101–1106 | publisher =CDC | date =Dec 2001 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5049a1.htm | pmid =11794619 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =Alberg | first =AJ | coauthors =Samet JM | title =Epidemiology of lung cancer | journal =Chest | volume =123 | issue =S1 | pages =21S-49S | publisher =American College of Chest Physicians | date =Jan 2003 | url =http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/content/full/123/1_suppl/21S | pmid =12527563 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref><ref name="Boffetta">{{cite journal | last =Boffetta | first =P | coauthors = Agudo A, Ahrens W et al. | title =Multicenter case-control study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in Europe | journal =Journal of the National Cancer Institute |volume =90 | issue =19 | pages =1440–1450 | publisher =Oxford University Press | date =Oct 1998 | url =http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/90/19/1440 | pmid =9776409 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref><ref name="Committee">{{cite web | title =Report of the Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health | publisher =Department of Health |date =Mar 1998 | url =http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/doh/tobacco/contents.htm | accessdate =2007-07-09 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =Hackshaw | first =AK | title =Lung cancer and passive smoking | journal =Statistical Methods in Medical Research | volume =7 | issue =2 | pages =119–136 | date =Jun 1998 | pmid =9654638 }}</ref><ref name="NHMRC">{{cite paper | author =National Health and Medical Research Council | title =The health effects and regulation of passive smoking |publisher =Australian Government Publishing Service | date =Apr 1994 | url =http://www.obpr.gov.au/publications/submission/healthef/index.html | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref> are associated with increased risk of lung cancer. | *Both active and passive smoking<ref>{{cite web | last =CDC | authorlink =Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |title =1986 Surgeon General's report: the health consequences of involuntary smoking | publisher =CDC | date =Dec 1986 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00000837.htm | pmid =3097495 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite book | last =National Research Council | title =Environmental tobacco smoke: measuring exposures and assessing health effects | publisher =National Academy Press | date =1986 | url =http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=943#toc | isbn =0-309-07456-8 }}<br />* {{cite paper | author =EPA | authorlink=United States Environmental Protection Agency | title =Respiratory health effects of passive smoking: lung cancer and other disorders | publisher =EPA | date =1992 | url =http://cfpub2.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=2835 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =California Environmental Protection Agency | title =Health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke | journal =Tobacco Control | volume =6 | issue =4 | pages =346–353 | date =1997 |url =http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/tobacco/caets/ets-main.htm | pmid =9583639 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =CDC | authorlink=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | title =State-specific prevalence of current cigarette smoking among adults, and policies and attitudes about secondhand smoke—United States, 2000 | journal =Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | volume =50 | issue =49 | pages =1101–1106 | publisher =CDC | date =Dec 2001 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5049a1.htm | pmid =11794619 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =Alberg | first =AJ | coauthors =Samet JM | title =Epidemiology of lung cancer | journal =Chest | volume =123 | issue =S1 | pages =21S-49S | publisher =American College of Chest Physicians | date =Jan 2003 | url =http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/content/full/123/1_suppl/21S | pmid =12527563 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref><ref name="Boffetta">{{cite journal | last =Boffetta | first =P | coauthors = Agudo A, Ahrens W et al. | title =Multicenter case-control study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in Europe | journal =Journal of the National Cancer Institute |volume =90 | issue =19 | pages =1440–1450 | publisher =Oxford University Press | date =Oct 1998 | url =http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/90/19/1440 | pmid =9776409 | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref><ref name="Committee">{{cite web | title =Report of the Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health | publisher =Department of Health |date =Mar 1998 | url =http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/doh/tobacco/contents.htm | accessdate =2007-07-09 }}<br />* {{cite journal | last =Hackshaw | first =AK | title =Lung cancer and passive smoking | journal =Statistical Methods in Medical Research | volume =7 | issue =2 | pages =119–136 | date =Jun 1998 | pmid =9654638 }}</ref><ref name="NHMRC">{{cite paper | author =National Health and Medical Research Council | title =The health effects and regulation of passive smoking |publisher =Australian Government Publishing Service | date =Apr 1994 | url =http://www.obpr.gov.au/publications/submission/healthef/index.html | accessdate =2007-08-10 }}</ref> are associated with increased risk of lung cancer. | ||
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<br clear="left"/> | <br clear="left"/> | ||
'''Air Pollution''' | |||
*Emissions from automobiles, factories and power plants are thought to pose potential risks.<ref name="Parent">{{cite journal | last =Parent | first =ME | coauthors = Rousseau MC, Boffetta P et al. | title =Exposure to diesel and gasoline engine emissions and the risk of lung cancer | journal =American Journal of Epidemiology | volume =165 | issue =1 | pages =53–62 | date =Jan 2007 | pmid = 17062632 }}</ref> | *Emissions from automobiles, factories and power plants are thought to pose potential risks.<ref name="Parent">{{cite journal | last =Parent | first =ME | coauthors = Rousseau MC, Boffetta P et al. | title =Exposure to diesel and gasoline engine emissions and the risk of lung cancer | journal =American Journal of Epidemiology | volume =165 | issue =1 | pages =53–62 | date =Jan 2007 | pmid = 17062632 }}</ref> | ||
'''Family History of Lung Cancer''' | |||
*Family history of lung cancer may increase the risk of lung cancer. However, a positive family history is not as important as a risk factor compared to smoking. | *Family history of lung cancer may increase the risk of lung cancer. However, a positive family history is not as important as a risk factor compared to smoking. | ||
'''Radiation Therapy to the Chest''' | |||
*A history of radiation therapy to the chest increases the risk of lung cancer due to the development of cellular damage and DNA mutations. | *A history of radiation therapy to the chest increases the risk of lung cancer due to the development of cellular damage and DNA mutations. | ||
'''Radon Exposure''' | |||
*Radon gas (home basements) > 4 pCi/L<ref name="EPA radon">{{cite web | last =EPA |authorlink =United States Environmental Protection Agency | title =Radiation information: radon | publisher =EPA | date =Oct 2006 |url =http://www.epa.gov/radiation/radionuclides/radon.htm | accessdate =2007-08-11 }}</ref> | *Radon gas (home basements) > 4 pCi/L<ref name="EPA radon">{{cite web | last =EPA |authorlink =United States Environmental Protection Agency | title =Radiation information: radon | publisher =EPA | date =Oct 2006 |url =http://www.epa.gov/radiation/radionuclides/radon.htm | accessdate =2007-08-11 }}</ref> | ||
*In USA high concentrations of radon are reported in Iowa. | *In USA high concentrations of radon are reported in Iowa. | ||
'''Asbestos Exposure''' | |||
*Asbestos particles often reside in the lungs and cause a state of chronic inflammation that prediposes to the development of lung cancer. | *Asbestos particles often reside in the lungs and cause a state of chronic inflammation that prediposes to the development of lung cancer. | ||
'''Exposure to Other Chemical Carcinogens''' | |||
*Arsenic in drinking water | *Arsenic in drinking water | ||
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-In-Chief: Kim-Son H. Nguyen, M.D., M.P.A., Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA, Cafer Zorkun, M.D., Ph.D. [2]
Overview
Smoking is the most important risk factor for the development of lung cancer. The risk of lung cancer is significantly higher among individuals who are active smokers, passive smokers, and even e-cigarette smokers. Similar risks are demonstrated for other forms of smoking (e.g. hookah smoking). Other risk factors include a positive family history for lung cancers and exposure to radon, asbestos, arsenic, and other chemical carcinogens.
Risk Factors
The following may increase one's risk of lung cancer:
- Smoking
- Family history of lung cancer
- High levels of air pollution
- Radiation therapy to the chest
- Radon gas
- Asbestos
- High levels of arsenic in drinking water
- Exposure to cancer-causing chemicals such as uranium, beryllium, vinyl chloride, nickel chromates, coal products, mustard gas, chloromethyl ethers, gasoline, and diesel exhaust
Smoking
- Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of lung cancer.
- Both active and passive smoking[1][2][3][4] are associated with increased risk of lung cancer.
- The risk of lung cancer is associated with increased quantity of cigarette smoking as well as increased duration of smoking.
- There is no evidence that smoking low-tar cigarettes lowers the risk (however lung cancer has occurred in people who have never smoked).
- The more cigarettes you smoke per day and the earlier you started smoking, the greater your risk of lung cancer.
- Recently introduced e-cigarrettes, which were thought to be risk-free were recently demonstrated to be also associated with a significantly increased risk of lung cancer due to the presence of formaldehyde.[5]
- In the United States, smoking is estimated to account for 87% of lung cancer cases (90% in men and 85% in women).[6]*There is approximately a 20 year lag period between smoking and death due to lung cancer (in men). Shown below is an image depicting the correlation between smoking and lung cancer.
Air Pollution
- Emissions from automobiles, factories and power plants are thought to pose potential risks.[7]
Family History of Lung Cancer
- Family history of lung cancer may increase the risk of lung cancer. However, a positive family history is not as important as a risk factor compared to smoking.
Radiation Therapy to the Chest
- A history of radiation therapy to the chest increases the risk of lung cancer due to the development of cellular damage and DNA mutations.
Radon Exposure
- Radon gas (home basements) > 4 pCi/L[8]
- In USA high concentrations of radon are reported in Iowa.
Asbestos Exposure
- Asbestos particles often reside in the lungs and cause a state of chronic inflammation that prediposes to the development of lung cancer.
Exposure to Other Chemical Carcinogens
- Arsenic in drinking water
- Uranium
- Beryllium
- Vinyl chloride
- Nickel chromates
- Coal products
- Mustard gas
- Chloromethyl ethers
References
- ↑ CDC (Dec 1986). "1986 Surgeon General's report: the health consequences of involuntary smoking". CDC. PMID 3097495. Retrieved 2007-08-10.
* National Research Council (1986). Environmental tobacco smoke: measuring exposures and assessing health effects. National Academy Press. ISBN 0-309-07456-8.
* Template:Cite paper
* California Environmental Protection Agency (1997). "Health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke". Tobacco Control. 6 (4): 346–353. PMID 9583639. Retrieved 2007-08-10.
* CDC (Dec 2001). "State-specific prevalence of current cigarette smoking among adults, and policies and attitudes about secondhand smoke—United States, 2000". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. CDC. 50 (49): 1101–1106. PMID 11794619. Retrieved 2007-08-10.
* Alberg, AJ (Jan 2003). "Epidemiology of lung cancer". Chest. American College of Chest Physicians. 123 (S1): 21S–49S. PMID 12527563. Retrieved 2007-08-10. Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Boffetta, P (Oct 1998). "Multicenter case-control study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in Europe". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. Oxford University Press. 90 (19): 1440–1450. PMID 9776409. Retrieved 2007-08-10. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ "Report of the Scientific Committee on Tobacco and Health". Department of Health. Mar 1998. Retrieved 2007-07-09.
* Hackshaw, AK (Jun 1998). "Lung cancer and passive smoking". Statistical Methods in Medical Research. 7 (2): 119–136. PMID 9654638. - ↑ Template:Cite paper
- ↑ Jensen RP, Luo W, Pankow JF, Strongin RM, Peyton DH (2015). "Hidden formaldehyde in e-cigarette aerosols". N Engl J Med. 372 (4): 392–4. doi:10.1056/NEJMc1413069. PMID 25607446.
- ↑ Samet, JM (May 1988). "Cigarette smoking and lung cancer in New Mexico". American Review of Respiratory Disease. 137 (5): 1110–1113. PMID 3264122. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Parent, ME (Jan 2007). "Exposure to diesel and gasoline engine emissions and the risk of lung cancer". American Journal of Epidemiology. 165 (1): 53–62. PMID 17062632. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ EPA (Oct 2006). "Radiation information: radon". EPA. Retrieved 2007-08-11.