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==Classification== | ==Classification== | ||
Leukemoid reaction can be classified according to the type of [[Hematopoiesis|hematopoietic]] lineage of the bone marrow. | Leukemoid reaction can be classified according to the type of [[Hematopoiesis|hematopoietic]] lineage of the bone marrow<ref name="pmid11087187">{{cite journal |vauthors=Abramson N, Melton B |title=Leukocytosis: basics of clinical assessment |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=62 |issue=9 |pages=2053–60 |year=2000 |pmid=11087187 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11087187">{{cite journal |vauthors=Abramson N, Melton B |title=Leukocytosis: basics of clinical assessment |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=62 |issue=9 |pages=2053–60 |year=2000 |pmid=11087187 |doi= |url=}}</ref>. | ||
# Reactions of [[myeloid]] type | # Reactions of [[myeloid]] type | ||
## [[Neutropenia|Neutrophilic]] leukemoid reactions | ## [[Neutropenia|Neutrophilic]] leukemoid reactions | ||
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==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
* Leukemoid reaction is a reversible increase in production of [[white blood cells]] in response to a stimulus, with white blood cell count of more than 25000-30000 per mm<sup>3.</sup> | * Leukemoid reaction is a reversible increase in production of [[white blood cells]] in response to a stimulus, with white blood cell count of more than 25000-30000 per mm<sup>3.</sup><ref name="pmid11087187">{{cite journal |vauthors=Abramson N, Melton B |title=Leukocytosis: basics of clinical assessment |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=62 |issue=9 |pages=2053–60 |year=2000 |pmid=11087187 |doi= |url=}}</ref>. | ||
* [[Leukocytosis]] is increase in white blood cell count of more than 10000 per mm3 and when the count exceeds 25000, with more than 2% immature white blood cells but absence of any blasts, differentiating it from [[Leukemia|leukemias]]. | * [[Leukocytosis]] is increase in white blood cell count of more than 10000 per mm3 and when the count exceeds 25000, with more than 2% immature white blood cells but absence of any blasts, differentiating it from [[Leukemia|leukemias]]<ref name="pmid5558646">{{cite journal| author=Ward HN, Reinhard EH| title=Chronic idiopathic leukocytosis. | journal=Ann Intern Med | year= 1971 | volume= 75 | issue= 2 | pages= 193-8 | pmid=5558646 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=5558646 }} </ref>. | ||
* Leukemoid reaction is classified according to the type of [[Hematopoiesis|hematopoietic]] lineage of the bone marrow. | * Leukemoid reaction is classified according to the type of [[Hematopoiesis|hematopoietic]] lineage of the bone marrow. | ||
* It is a reactive, functional condition of [[Hematopoiesis|hematopoietic]], [[Lymphatic system|lymphatic]] and [[Immunity (medical)|immune]] systems secondary to various diseases accompanied by the development of immature white blood cells in the peripheral blood. | * It is a reactive, functional condition of [[Hematopoiesis|hematopoietic]], [[Lymphatic system|lymphatic]] and [[Immunity (medical)|immune]] systems secondary to various diseases accompanied by the development of immature white blood cells in the peripheral blood. | ||
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* The sensitization causes upregulation of growth or survival factors (eg, [[granulocyte colony-stimulating factor]], [[granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor]], c-kit ligand), [[adhesion]] molecules (eg, [[Integrin alpha M|CD11b]]/CD18), and various [[Cytokine|cytokines]] (eg, [[Interleukin 1|interleukin-1]], [[Interleukin 3|interleukin-3]], [[Interleukin 6|interleukin-6]], [[Interleukin 8|interleukin-8]], [[Tumour necrosis factor|tumor necrosis factor]]). | * The sensitization causes upregulation of growth or survival factors (eg, [[granulocyte colony-stimulating factor]], [[granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor]], c-kit ligand), [[adhesion]] molecules (eg, [[Integrin alpha M|CD11b]]/CD18), and various [[Cytokine|cytokines]] (eg, [[Interleukin 1|interleukin-1]], [[Interleukin 3|interleukin-3]], [[Interleukin 6|interleukin-6]], [[Interleukin 8|interleukin-8]], [[Tumour necrosis factor|tumor necrosis factor]]). | ||
* There is activation of normal [[hematopoiesis]] and excessive blood cells output to peripheral blood (reactive [[hyperplasia]] of leukopoietic tissue) and output of immature blood cells into peripheral blood. | * There is activation of normal [[hematopoiesis]] and excessive blood cells output to peripheral blood (reactive [[hyperplasia]] of leukopoietic tissue) and output of immature blood cells into peripheral blood. | ||
* The image below demonstrates a graphic figure that illustrates hematopoietic growth factors in leukocytosis.<ref name="wiki">Leukocytosis. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukocytosis Accessed on May 23, 2016 </ref> | |||
[[Image:Hematopoietic growth factors.png|600px|center|thumb|Hematopoietic growth factors in leukocytosis, Courtesy of Wikipedia]] | |||
* Reactions of [[myeloid]] type are characterized by a shift to the left, from an increased number of stab cells to singular blast cells with presence of all intermediate forms. | * Reactions of [[myeloid]] type are characterized by a shift to the left, from an increased number of stab cells to singular blast cells with presence of all intermediate forms. | ||
* There is an increase in immature [[Granulocyte|granulocytes]] of [[myeloid]] lineage. | * There is an increase in immature [[Granulocyte|granulocytes]] of [[myeloid]] lineage. | ||
** [[Neutrophilic leukopenia|Neutrophilic]] leukemoid reactions develop in Infections ([[sepsis]], [[scarlet fever]], [[abscess]], [[diphtheria]], [[Pneumonia|lobar pneumonia]], [[tuberculosis]], [[dysentery]], etc), exposure to ionizing [[Radiation therapy|radiation]], Injuries of the skull, intoxication ([[Chronic renal failure pathophysiology|uremia]], [[Carbon monoxide poisoning|CO poisoning]]), bone marrow [[Metastasis|metastases]] of malignant tumors. | ** [[Neutrophilic leukopenia|Neutrophilic]] leukemoid reactions develop in Infections ([[sepsis]], [[scarlet fever]], [[abscess]], [[diphtheria]], [[Pneumonia|lobar pneumonia]], [[tuberculosis]], [[dysentery]], etc), exposure to ionizing [[Radiation therapy|radiation]], Injuries of the skull, intoxication ([[Chronic renal failure pathophysiology|uremia]], [[Carbon monoxide poisoning|CO poisoning]]), bone marrow [[Metastasis|metastases]] of malignant tumors<ref name="pmid12032893">{{cite journal| author=Wanahita A, Goldsmith EA, Musher DM| title=Conditions associated with leukocytosis in a tertiary care hospital, with particular attention to the role of infection caused by clostridium difficile. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2002 | volume= 34 | issue= 12 | pages= 1585-92 | pmid=12032893 | doi=10.1086/340536 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12032893 }} </ref><ref name="pmid17314214">{{cite journal| author=Lawrence YR, Raveh D, Rudensky B, Munter G| title=Extreme leukocytosis in the emergency department. | journal=QJM | year= 2007 | volume= 100 | issue= 4 | pages= 217-23 | pmid=17314214 | doi=10.1093/qjmed/hcm006 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17314214 }} </ref>. | ||
** [[Eosinophilic]] reactions develop in [[Allergy|allergic]] processes or in diseases with [[Allergy|allergies]], as well as in [[Parasitism|parasitic]] diseases. They are characterized by the development of a great number of [[eosinophils]], about 90% of leukocytes. | ** [[Eosinophilic]] reactions develop in [[Allergy|allergic]] processes or in diseases with [[Allergy|allergies]], as well as in [[Parasitism|parasitic]] diseases. They are characterized by the development of a great number of [[eosinophils]], about 90% of leukocytes. | ||
* Lymphomonocytic leukemoid reactions develop in [[Mononucleosis|infectious mononucleosis]], there are atypical mononuclear cells, called "lymphomonocytes" which are modulated [[T cell|T-]] and [[Nk-cell lineage granular lymphocyte proliferative disorder|NK-lymphocytes]], which get to the bloodstream by initiation of [[B cell|B lymphocytes]].The number of atypical mononuclear cells can be increased in any [[Virus|viral]] infection. | * Lymphomonocytic leukemoid reactions develop in [[Mononucleosis|infectious mononucleosis]], there are atypical mononuclear cells, called "lymphomonocytes" which are modulated [[T cell|T-]] and [[Nk-cell lineage granular lymphocyte proliferative disorder|NK-lymphocytes]], which get to the bloodstream by initiation of [[B cell|B lymphocytes]].The number of atypical mononuclear cells can be increased in any [[Virus|viral]] infection<ref name="pmid5635603">{{cite journal| author=McBride JA, Dacie JV, Shapley R| title=The effect of splenectomy on the leucocyte count. | journal=Br J Haematol | year= 1968 | volume= 14 | issue= 2 | pages= 225-31 | pmid=5635603 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=5635603 }} </ref>. | ||
* Lymphocytic leukemoid reactions develop in acute viral and bacterial infections and are characterized by [[leukocytosis]] with absolute [[lymphocytosis]]. | * Lymphocytic leukemoid reactions develop in acute viral and bacterial infections and are characterized by [[leukocytosis]] with absolute [[lymphocytosis]]. | ||
* Plasmocytic leukemoid reactions occur in diseases caused by [[protozoa]] ([[toxoplasmosis]]), [[Virus|viral infections]] ([[chickenpox]], [[measles]], [[rubella]]). Increased level of plasma cells (2%) in [[splenomegaly]], [[blood]] and [[bone marrow]]. | * Plasmocytic leukemoid reactions occur in diseases caused by [[protozoa]] ([[toxoplasmosis]]), [[Virus|viral infections]] ([[chickenpox]], [[measles]], [[rubella]]). Increased level of plasma cells (2%) in [[splenomegaly]], [[blood]] and [[bone marrow]]. | ||
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==Causes== | ==Causes== | ||
* Neutrophilic leukemoid reactions : | * Neutrophilic leukemoid reactions <ref name="pmid5058244">{{cite journal| author=Spencer RP, McPhedran P, Finch SC, Morgan WS| title=Persistent neutrophilic leukocytosis associated with idiopathic functional asplenia. | journal=J Nucl Med | year= 1972 | volume= 13 | issue= 3 | pages= 224-6 | pmid=5058244 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=5058244 }} </ref><ref name="pmid3804928">{{cite journal| author=Foster NK, Martyn JB, Rangno RE, Hogg JC, Pardy RL| title=Leukocytosis of exercise: role of cardiac output and catecholamines. | journal=J Appl Physiol (1985) | year= 1986 | volume= 61 | issue= 6 | pages= 2218-23 | pmid=3804928 | doi=10.1152/jappl.1986.61.6.2218 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3804928 }} </ref><ref name="pmid6444534">{{cite journal| author=Brodeur GM, Dahl GV, Williams DL, Tipton RE, Kalwinsky DK| title=Transient leukemoid reaction and trisomy 21 mosaicism in a phenotypically normal newborn. | journal=Blood | year= 1980 | volume= 55 | issue= 4 | pages= 691-3 | pmid=6444534 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6444534 }} </ref><ref name="pmid28699170">{{cite journal| author=Harvey Y, Bleakley S, Blombery P, Bain BJ| title=Marked leukemoid reaction in a patient with metastatic breast carcinoma. | journal=Am J Hematol | year= 2018 | volume= 93 | issue= 2 | pages= 306-307 | pmid=28699170 | doi=10.1002/ajh.24849 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28699170 }} </ref>: | ||
** Infections - [[sepsis]], [[scarlet fever]], [[abscess]], [[diphtheria]], [[Pneumonia|lobar pneumonia]], [[tuberculosis]], [[dysentery]] | ** Infections - [[sepsis]], [[scarlet fever]], [[abscess]], [[diphtheria]], [[Pneumonia|lobar pneumonia]], [[tuberculosis]], [[dysentery]] | ||
** Exposure to ionizing [[Radiation therapy|radiation]]. | ** Exposure to ionizing [[Radiation therapy|radiation]]. | ||
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==Differentiating Leukemoid reaction from Other Diseases== | ==Differentiating Leukemoid reaction from Other Diseases== | ||
Leukemoid reaction is differentiated from leukemia by following ways: | Leukemoid reaction is differentiated from leukemia by following ways<ref name="pmid16962944">{{cite journal| author=Sakka V, Tsiodras S, Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Giamarellou H| title=An update on the etiology and diagnostic evaluation of a leukemoid reaction. | journal=Eur J Intern Med | year= 2006 | volume= 17 | issue= 6 | pages= 394-8 | pmid=16962944 | doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2006.04.004 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16962944 }} </ref><ref name="pmid28656128">{{cite journal| author=Updyke KM, Morales-Lappot J, Lee T| title=Atypical Presentation of Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia. | journal=Cureus | year= 2017 | volume= 9 | issue= 5 | pages= e1280 | pmid=28656128 | doi=10.7759/cureus.1280 | pmc=5484601 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28656128 }} </ref>: | ||
{| border="1" | {| border="1" | ||
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=== Age === | === Age === | ||
* Patients of all age groups may develop leukemoid reaction. | * Patients of all age groups may develop leukemoid reaction<ref name="pmid11087187">{{cite journal |vauthors=Abramson N, Melton B |title=Leukocytosis: basics of clinical assessment |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=62 |issue=9 |pages=2053–60 |year=2000 |pmid=11087187 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid29696475">{{cite journal| author=Hoofien A, Yarden-Bilavski H, Ashkenazi S, Chodick G, Livni G| title=Leukemoid reaction in the pediatric population: etiologies, outcome, and implications. | journal=Eur J Pediatr | year= 2018 | volume= 177 | issue= 7 | pages= 1029-1036 | pmid=29696475 | doi=10.1007/s00431-018-3155-5 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29696475 }} </ref>. | ||
* Normal white blood count differential changes with age. | * Normal white blood count differential changes with age. | ||
* Leukemoid reaction in neonates is more common, compared to children and adults. | * Leukemoid reaction in neonates is more common, compared to children and adults. | ||
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=== History === | === History === | ||
*The majority of patients with leukemoid reaction | *The majority of patients with leukemoid reaction have the following complaints<ref name="pmid29366572">{{cite journal| author=Ellison TA, Mandal K| title=Leukemoid reaction: Case report. | journal=J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg | year= 2018 | volume= 155 | issue= 4 | pages= e117-e118 | pmid=29366572 | doi=10.1016/j.jtcvs.2017.08.125 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29366572 }} </ref><ref name="pmid27720771">{{cite journal| author=Wang Z, Cai Q, Li G, Jiang N, Niu Y| title=Giant Pheochromocytoma With Leukemoid Reaction: A Case Report. | journal=Urology | year= 2017 | volume= 99 | issue= | pages= e17-e19 | pmid=27720771 | doi=10.1016/j.urology.2016.08.021 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27720771 }} </ref> | ||
*Early clinical features, include: | |||
**[[Fever]] | **[[Fever]] | ||
**[[Hyperhidrosis]] | **[[Hyperhidrosis]] | ||
**[[Fatigue]] | **[[Fatigue]] | ||
===Complications=== | ===Complications=== | ||
*Common complications of leukemoid reaction, include: | *Common complications of leukemoid reaction, include: | ||
**[[Tumor lysis syndrome]] | **[[Tumor lysis syndrome]] | ||
**[[Disseminated intravascular coagulation|Disseminated intravascular coagulopathy]] | **[[Disseminated intravascular coagulation|Disseminated intravascular coagulopathy]] | ||
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===Symptoms=== | ===Symptoms=== | ||
*Leukemoid reaction is usually symptomatic. | *Leukemoid reaction is usually symptomatic. | ||
*Symptoms of leukemoid reaction are often unspecific, such as | *Symptoms of leukemoid reaction are often unspecific, such as<ref name="pmid27057215">{{cite journal| author=Agrawal D, Kurwale N, Sharma BS| title=Leukocytosis after routine cranial surgery: A potential marker for brain damage in intracranial surgery. | journal=Asian J Neurosurg | year= 2016 | volume= 11 | issue= 2 | pages= 109-13 | pmid=27057215 | doi=10.4103/1793-5482.145066 | pmc=4802930 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27057215 }} </ref>: | ||
**[[Weight loss]] | **[[Weight loss]] | ||
**[[Fevers of unknown origin]] | **[[Fevers of unknown origin]] | ||
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=== Laboratory findings === | === Laboratory findings === | ||
*Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of leukemoid reaction, include | *Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of leukemoid reaction, include<ref name="pmid29366572">{{cite journal| author=Ellison TA, Mandal K| title=Leukemoid reaction: Case report. | journal=J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg | year= 2018 | volume= 155 | issue= 4 | pages= e117-e118 | pmid=29366572 | doi=10.1016/j.jtcvs.2017.08.125 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29366572 }} </ref>: | ||
**White blood cell count above the normal range, greater than 25000 per mm<sup>3</sup>. | **White blood cell count above the normal range, greater than 25000 per mm<sup>3</sup>. | ||
**Bone marrow aspiration reveals hyperplasia of normal [[Hematopoiesis|hematopoietic]] cells in proliferative reactions. The presence of blast and immature forms of [[leukocyte]], [[platelet]] and erythrocyte hematopoiesis in the proliferative reactions. | **Bone marrow aspiration reveals hyperplasia of normal [[Hematopoiesis|hematopoietic]] cells in proliferative reactions. The presence of blast and immature forms of [[leukocyte]], [[platelet]] and erythrocyte hematopoiesis in the proliferative reactions. | ||
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==Treatment== | ==Treatment== | ||
===Medical Therapy=== | ===Medical Therapy=== | ||
* The treatment of leukemoid reaction depends on the underlying cause. | * The treatment of leukemoid reaction depends on the underlying cause<ref name="pmid29366572">{{cite journal| author=Ellison TA, Mandal K| title=Leukemoid reaction: Case report. | journal=J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg | year= 2018 | volume= 155 | issue= 4 | pages= e117-e118 | pmid=29366572 | doi=10.1016/j.jtcvs.2017.08.125 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29366572 }} </ref>. | ||
* Measures to reduce white blood cell count include: | * Measures to reduce white blood cell count include: | ||
** [[Leukapheresis]] or exchange blood transfusion. | ** [[Leukapheresis]] or exchange blood transfusion. | ||
Revision as of 19:55, 9 October 2018
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
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Overview
Leukemoid reaction is a reversible increase in production of white blood cells in response to a stimulus, with white blood cell count of more than 25000-30000 per mm3 Leukocytosis is increase in white blood cell count of more than 10000 per mm3 and when the count exceeds 25000, with more than 2% immature white blood cells but absence of any blast cells, differentiating it from leukemias. Leukemoid reaction is classified according to the type of hematopoietic lineage of the bone marrow. Leukemoid reactions are mostly triggered by bacterial or viral infections. Leukemoid reaction is differentiated from leukemias by the absence of blast cells on peripheral blood film and high LAP score. Leukemoid reaction can lead to serious complications such as tumor lysis syndrome and DIC. The treatment includes treating the underlying cause and leukapheresis.
Historical Perspective
- Leukemoid reaction was discovered in 1926 by Krumbharr.
Classification
Leukemoid reaction can be classified according to the type of hematopoietic lineage of the bone marrow[1][1].
- Reactions of myeloid type
- Neutrophilic leukemoid reactions
- Eosinophilic leukemoid reactions
- Reactions of lymphoid type
- Lymphomonocytic leukemoid reactions
- Lymphocytic leukemoid reactions
- Plasmocytic leukemoid reactions
- Leukemoid reaction with blast cells
- Secondary (reactive) thrombocytosis
- Secondary erythrocytosis
- Mixed forms of leukemoid reactions
- Rare forms of leukemoid reaction
- Leukemoid reactions of basophilic type.
Pathophysiology
- Leukemoid reaction is a reversible increase in production of white blood cells in response to a stimulus, with white blood cell count of more than 25000-30000 per mm3.[1].
- Leukocytosis is increase in white blood cell count of more than 10000 per mm3 and when the count exceeds 25000, with more than 2% immature white blood cells but absence of any blasts, differentiating it from leukemias[2].
- Leukemoid reaction is classified according to the type of hematopoietic lineage of the bone marrow.
- It is a reactive, functional condition of hematopoietic, lymphatic and immune systems secondary to various diseases accompanied by the development of immature white blood cells in the peripheral blood.
- Leukemoid reaction is diagnosed after the exclusion of a malignant hematological disorder.
- Changes in blood are transient and blood levels return to normal when the causes disappear.
- There are no signs of inhibition of normal hematopoiesis.
- Leukemoid reactions are mostly triggered by bacterial or viral infections, emergency stress irritants and also by various bacterial and nonbacterial stimulants causing sensitization.
- The sensitization causes upregulation of growth or survival factors (eg, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, c-kit ligand), adhesion molecules (eg, CD11b/CD18), and various cytokines (eg, interleukin-1, interleukin-3, interleukin-6, interleukin-8, tumor necrosis factor).
- There is activation of normal hematopoiesis and excessive blood cells output to peripheral blood (reactive hyperplasia of leukopoietic tissue) and output of immature blood cells into peripheral blood.
- The image below demonstrates a graphic figure that illustrates hematopoietic growth factors in leukocytosis.[3]
- Reactions of myeloid type are characterized by a shift to the left, from an increased number of stab cells to singular blast cells with presence of all intermediate forms.
- There is an increase in immature granulocytes of myeloid lineage.
- Neutrophilic leukemoid reactions develop in Infections (sepsis, scarlet fever, abscess, diphtheria, lobar pneumonia, tuberculosis, dysentery, etc), exposure to ionizing radiation, Injuries of the skull, intoxication (uremia, CO poisoning), bone marrow metastases of malignant tumors[4][5].
- Eosinophilic reactions develop in allergic processes or in diseases with allergies, as well as in parasitic diseases. They are characterized by the development of a great number of eosinophils, about 90% of leukocytes.
- Lymphomonocytic leukemoid reactions develop in infectious mononucleosis, there are atypical mononuclear cells, called "lymphomonocytes" which are modulated T- and NK-lymphocytes, which get to the bloodstream by initiation of B lymphocytes.The number of atypical mononuclear cells can be increased in any viral infection[6].
- Lymphocytic leukemoid reactions develop in acute viral and bacterial infections and are characterized by leukocytosis with absolute lymphocytosis.
- Plasmocytic leukemoid reactions occur in diseases caused by protozoa (toxoplasmosis), viral infections (chickenpox, measles, rubella). Increased level of plasma cells (2%) in splenomegaly, blood and bone marrow.
- Leukemoid reactions with blast cells develop in severe viral infections (cytomegalovirus, etc.). Blast transformation of B-lymphocytes may be observed in the bone marrow, lymph nodes and peripheral blood.
- Secondary absolute erythrocytosis is caused by increased erythropoiesis, relative hemoconcentration and polycythemia. It is characterized by increased red blood cell count.
- Secondary thrombocytosis is possible in malignant tumors, inflammatory diseases, following bleeding, hemolytic crises, after surgical operations and splenectomy.
Causes
- Neutrophilic leukemoid reactions [7][8][9][10]:
- Infections - sepsis, scarlet fever, abscess, diphtheria, lobar pneumonia, tuberculosis, dysentery
- Exposure to ionizing radiation.
- Injuries of the skull.
- Intoxication (uremia, CO poisoning).
- Bone marrow metastases of malignant tumors - Lymphogranulomatosis
- Steroid hormones therapy
- Eosinophilic reactions :
- Lymphomonocytic leukemoid reactions:
- Lymphocytic leukemoid reaction:
- Plasmocytic leukemoid reactions:
- Diseases caused by protozoa (toxoplasmosis), and viral infections (chickenpox, measles, rubella).
- Thrombocytosis:
- Primary thrombocytosis- chronic myeloproliferative diseases.
- Secondary thrombocytosis-
- Malignant tumors
- Inflammatory diseases
- Following bleeding
- Hemolytic crises
- After surgical operations and splenectomy.
- Leukemoid reactions of basophilic type:
Differentiating Leukemoid reaction from Other Diseases
Leukemoid reaction is differentiated from leukemia by following ways[11][12]:
| Differentiating features | Leukemia | Leukemoid reaction |
|---|---|---|
| Causes | Carcinogens | Infectious agents, biologically active substances and
products of tissue destruction |
| Pathogenesis | The transformation of normal haematopoietic
cells to a tumor |
Activation of normal hematopoiesis and exit of immature leukocytes
into the bloodstream. |
| Duration | Chronic | Temporary and reversible |
| Genetic level | Defect | No defect |
| Splenomegaly | Present | Not present |
| Peripheral blood | Immature cells, pancytopenia | Mature and immature granulocytes with left shift |
| Bone marrow | Increase in blasts and immature cells | Myeloid hyperplasia and normal morphology |
| LAP score | Low | High |
Toxic granules
(suggestive of infection) |
Absent | Present |
| Dohle inclusion bodies | Absent | Present |
Epidemiology and Demographics
Age
- Patients of all age groups may develop leukemoid reaction[1][13].
- Normal white blood count differential changes with age.
- Leukemoid reaction in neonates is more common, compared to children and adults.
Gender
- Leukemoid reaction affects men and women equally.
Race
- There is no racial predilection for the development of leukemoid reaction.
Risk Factors
- Common risk factors in the development of leukocytosis, include:[1]
- Physiologic processes (eg, stress, exercise, pregnancy)
- Drugs (e.g.corticosteroids)
- Trauma
Screening
No screening is done for leukemoid reaction.
Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis
History
- The majority of patients with leukemoid reaction have the following complaints[14][15]
- Early clinical features, include:
Complications
- Common complications of leukemoid reaction, include:
Prognosis
- Prognosis generally depends on the underlying etiologies.
- If the white blood cell count reaches more than 50000 per mm3, life threatening complications can ocuur.
Diagnosis
Symptoms
- Leukemoid reaction is usually symptomatic.
- Symptoms of leukemoid reaction are often unspecific, such as[16]:
- Weight loss
- Fevers of unknown origin
- Hyperhidrosis
- Chronic pain
- Fatigue
- Dyspnea
- Malaise
- Obtain history of the following:
- Clinical features
- Duration (e.g. days, weeks, months)
- Remainder of complete blood count
Laboratory findings
- Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of leukemoid reaction, include[14]:
- White blood cell count above the normal range, greater than 25000 per mm3.
- Bone marrow aspiration reveals hyperplasia of normal hematopoietic cells in proliferative reactions. The presence of blast and immature forms of leukocyte, platelet and erythrocyte hematopoiesis in the proliferative reactions.
- The peripheral blood smear shows myelocytes, metamyelocytes, promyelocytes, and small amount of myeloblasts.
- leukocyte alkaline phosphatase score is more than 100.
Electrocardiogram
No specific ECG changes in leukemoid reaction.
X-Ray
No specific x ray changes in leukemoid reaction.
Echocardiograph and Ultrasound
No echocardiography and ultrasound findings.
CT
No CT scan findings in leukemoid reaction.
MRI
No specific MRI findings in leukemoid reaction.
Treatment
Medical Therapy
- The treatment of leukemoid reaction depends on the underlying cause[14].
- Measures to reduce white blood cell count include:
- Leukapheresis or exchange blood transfusion.
- Hydration
- Urine alkalinization
- Administration of allopurinol or rasburicase to reduce serum uric acid and minimize tumor lysis syndrome.
Surgery
The treatment depends on the underlying cause.
Primary prevention
Prevention and treatment of infections.
Secondary prevention
Treatment of underlying cause and reduction of white blood cell count.
See also
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Abramson N, Melton B (2000). "Leukocytosis: basics of clinical assessment". Am Fam Physician. 62 (9): 2053–60. PMID 11087187.
- ↑ Ward HN, Reinhard EH (1971). "Chronic idiopathic leukocytosis". Ann Intern Med. 75 (2): 193–8. PMID 5558646.
- ↑ Leukocytosis. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukocytosis Accessed on May 23, 2016
- ↑ Wanahita A, Goldsmith EA, Musher DM (2002). "Conditions associated with leukocytosis in a tertiary care hospital, with particular attention to the role of infection caused by clostridium difficile". Clin Infect Dis. 34 (12): 1585–92. doi:10.1086/340536. PMID 12032893.
- ↑ Lawrence YR, Raveh D, Rudensky B, Munter G (2007). "Extreme leukocytosis in the emergency department". QJM. 100 (4): 217–23. doi:10.1093/qjmed/hcm006. PMID 17314214.
- ↑ McBride JA, Dacie JV, Shapley R (1968). "The effect of splenectomy on the leucocyte count". Br J Haematol. 14 (2): 225–31. PMID 5635603.
- ↑ Spencer RP, McPhedran P, Finch SC, Morgan WS (1972). "Persistent neutrophilic leukocytosis associated with idiopathic functional asplenia". J Nucl Med. 13 (3): 224–6. PMID 5058244.
- ↑ Foster NK, Martyn JB, Rangno RE, Hogg JC, Pardy RL (1986). "Leukocytosis of exercise: role of cardiac output and catecholamines". J Appl Physiol (1985). 61 (6): 2218–23. doi:10.1152/jappl.1986.61.6.2218. PMID 3804928.
- ↑ Brodeur GM, Dahl GV, Williams DL, Tipton RE, Kalwinsky DK (1980). "Transient leukemoid reaction and trisomy 21 mosaicism in a phenotypically normal newborn". Blood. 55 (4): 691–3. PMID 6444534.
- ↑ Harvey Y, Bleakley S, Blombery P, Bain BJ (2018). "Marked leukemoid reaction in a patient with metastatic breast carcinoma". Am J Hematol. 93 (2): 306–307. doi:10.1002/ajh.24849. PMID 28699170.
- ↑ Sakka V, Tsiodras S, Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Giamarellou H (2006). "An update on the etiology and diagnostic evaluation of a leukemoid reaction". Eur J Intern Med. 17 (6): 394–8. doi:10.1016/j.ejim.2006.04.004. PMID 16962944.
- ↑ Updyke KM, Morales-Lappot J, Lee T (2017). "Atypical Presentation of Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia". Cureus. 9 (5): e1280. doi:10.7759/cureus.1280. PMC 5484601. PMID 28656128.
- ↑ Hoofien A, Yarden-Bilavski H, Ashkenazi S, Chodick G, Livni G (2018). "Leukemoid reaction in the pediatric population: etiologies, outcome, and implications". Eur J Pediatr. 177 (7): 1029–1036. doi:10.1007/s00431-018-3155-5. PMID 29696475.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Ellison TA, Mandal K (2018). "Leukemoid reaction: Case report". J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 155 (4): e117–e118. doi:10.1016/j.jtcvs.2017.08.125. PMID 29366572.
- ↑ Wang Z, Cai Q, Li G, Jiang N, Niu Y (2017). "Giant Pheochromocytoma With Leukemoid Reaction: A Case Report". Urology. 99: e17–e19. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2016.08.021. PMID 27720771.
- ↑ Agrawal D, Kurwale N, Sharma BS (2016). "Leukocytosis after routine cranial surgery: A potential marker for brain damage in intracranial surgery". Asian J Neurosurg. 11 (2): 109–13. doi:10.4103/1793-5482.145066. PMC 4802930. PMID 27057215.