Coccidioidomycosis overview: Difference between revisions
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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
Coccidioidomycosis is a [[fungus|fungal]] disease caused by ''[[Coccidioides immitis]]'' or ''[[Coccidioides posadasii|C. posadasii]]''.<ref name=Baron>{{cite book | author = Walsh TJ, Dixon DM | title = Spectrum of Mycoses. ''In:'' Baron's Medical Microbiology ''(Baron S ''et al'', eds.)| edition = 4th ed. | publisher = Univ of Texas Medical Branch | year = 1996 | id = [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed.section.4006 (via NCBI Bookshelf)] ISBN 0-9631172-1-1 }}</ref> | Coccidioidomycosis is a [[fungus|fungal]] [[disease]] caused by ''[[Coccidioides immitis]]'' or ''[[Coccidioides posadasii|C. posadasii]]''. It can be caused by breathing [[Coccidioides spp|coccidioides]] spores in the air, especially after a soil disturbance. As per CDC [http://www.cdc.gov/fungal/coccidioidomycosis/definition.html] about 30-60 % people living in endemic areas are exposed to the infection sometimes in their lives.<ref name=Baron>{{cite book | author = Walsh TJ, Dixon DM | title = Spectrum of Mycoses. ''In:'' Baron's Medical Microbiology ''(Baron S ''et al'', eds.)| edition = 4th ed. | publisher = Univ of Texas Medical Branch | year = 1996 | id = [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mmed.section.4006 (via NCBI Bookshelf)] ISBN 0-9631172-1-1 }}</ref> | ||
==Historical Perspective== | ==Historical Perspective== | ||
Coccidioidomycosis was first discovered | Coccidioidomycosis was first discovered in 1892 by, Alejandro Posadas (a medical student) along with his mentor. They grouped coccidioidomycosis under [[parasitic]] family. Emmet Rixford and T. Caspar Gilchrist coined the term coccidioidomycosis (resembling [[coccidia]]) in 1896. William Ophüls and Herbert C. Moffitt described its dimorphic nature and defined it as a fungal etiology in 1900. C. immitis was investigated by the United States during the 1950s and 1960s as a potential biological weapon. It was never standardized, around beyond a few field trials, it was never weaponized. | ||
==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
[[Coccidioidomycosis]] is a fungal infection, that is acquired through [[inhalation]] of the [[spores]] | [[Coccidioidomycosis]] is a [[fungal infection]], that is acquired through [[inhalation]] of the [[spores]] from the environment. Following [[inhalation]], the [[spores]] gets deposited into termina[[Bronchioles|l bronchioles]] and enlarge, become rounded and develop internal septations to form what are known as the spherules. It then disseminates through the [[lymphatics]] and [[blood]] stream to gain access to any organ of the body.<ref name="pmid26739609">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stockamp NW, Thompson GR |title=Coccidioidomycosis |journal=Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=229–46 |year=2016 |pmid=26739609 |doi=10.1016/j.idc.2015.10.008 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26398540">{{cite journal |vauthors=Twarog M, Thompson GR |title=Coccidioidomycosis: Recent Updates |journal=Semin Respir Crit Care Med |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=746–55 |year=2015 |pmid=26398540 |doi=10.1055/s-0035-1562900 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25577855">{{cite journal |vauthors=DiCaudo DJ |title=Coccidioidomycosis |journal=Semin Cutan Med Surg |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=140–5 |year=2014 |pmid=25577855 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24575994">{{cite journal |vauthors=Malo J, Luraschi-Monjagatta C, Wolk DM, Thompson R, Hage CA, Knox KS |title=Update on the diagnosis of pulmonary coccidioidomycosis |journal=Ann Am Thorac Soc |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=243–53 |year=2014 |pmid=24575994 |doi=10.1513/AnnalsATS.201308-286FR |url=}}</ref> | ||
==Causes== | ==Causes== | ||
Coccidioidomycosis is caused by an infection with [[Coccidioides immitis]] or [[Coccidioides posadasii|Coccidioides posadasi]]<nowiki/>i | [[Coccidioidomycosis]] is caused by an [[infection]] with [[Coccidioides immitis]] or [[Coccidioides posadasii|Coccidioides posadasi]]<nowiki/>i | ||
==Epidemiology and Demographics== | ==Epidemiology and Demographics== | ||
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It is [[endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] in certain parts of Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Utah and northwestern Mexico. | It is [[endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] in certain parts of Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Utah and northwestern Mexico. | ||
==Differentiating Coccidioidomycosis from other Diseases== | ==Differentiating Coccidioidomycosis from other Diseases== | ||
Coccidioidomycosis presents as a mild flu-like illness that needs to be differentiated from a number of other fungal/bacterial disorders. These disorders have overlapping signs & symptoms such as fever, muscle pain along with rash that often | Coccidioidomycosis presents as a mild flu-like illness that needs to be differentiated from a number of other fungal/bacterial disorders. These disorders have overlapping signs & symptoms such as [[fever]], [[muscle pain]] along with [[rash]] that often needs detailed history, physical examination, and [[serological]] tests to pinpoint the diagnosis. [[Blastomycosis]], [[Histoplasmosis]], [[Aspergillosis]], [[Pneumocystis pneumonia]], [[Sporotrichosis]]. | ||
==Risk Factors== | ==Risk Factors== | ||
On occasion, those particularly susceptible, including pregnant women, people with weakened immune systems, and those of Asian, Hispanic and African descent, may develop a serious or even fatal illness from valley fever. | On occasion, those particularly susceptible, including [[pregnant]] women, people with weakened [[immune]] systems, and those of Asian, Hispanic and African descent, may develop a serious or even fatal illness from [[valley fever]]. | ||
==Natural History, Complications and Prognosis== | ==Natural History, Complications and Prognosis== | ||
===Natural History=== | ===Natural History=== | ||
Symptomatic infection (40% of cases) usually presents as an [[influenza]]-like illness with [[fever]], [[Cough|cough,]] [[headaches]], [[rash]], and [[myalgia]]. Some patients fail to recover and develop chronic pulmonary infection or widespread disseminated infection (affecting [[meninges]], soft tissues, joints, and bone). Severe pulmonary disease may develop in [[HIV]]-infected persons.<ref name=Ampel_2005>{{cite journal | author = Ampel N | title = Coccidioidomycosis in persons infected with HIV type 1. | journal = Clin Infect Dis | volume = 41 | issue = 8 | pages = 1174-8 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 16163637}}</ref><ref name=Sherris>{{cite book | author = Ryan KJ; Ray CG (editors) | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th ed. | pages = pp. 680-83 | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0838585299 }}</ref> | Symptomatic [[infection]] (40% of cases) usually presents as an [[influenza]]-like illness with [[fever]], [[Cough|cough,]] [[headaches]], [[rash]], and [[myalgia]]. Some patients fail to recover and develop chronic [[pulmonary]] [[infection]] or widespread disseminated infection (affecting [[meninges]], soft [[tissues]], [[joints]], and [[bone]]). Severe [[pulmonary]] [[disease]] may develop in [[HIV]]-infected persons.<ref name=Ampel_2005>{{cite journal | author = Ampel N | title = Coccidioidomycosis in persons infected with HIV type 1. | journal = Clin Infect Dis | volume = 41 | issue = 8 | pages = 1174-8 | year = 2005 | id = PMID 16163637}}</ref><ref name=Sherris>{{cite book | author = Ryan KJ; Ray CG (editors) | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th ed. | pages = pp. 680-83 | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0838585299 }}</ref> | ||
===Complications=== | ===Complications=== | ||
Serious complications include severe [[pneumonia]], [[lung nodule]]s, and disseminated disease, where the fungus spreads throughout the body. The disseminated form of valley fever can devastate the body, causing skin ulcers and [[abscess]]es to bone lesions, severe joint pain, [[pericarditis]], [[prostatitis]],[[urinary tract infection]], [[meningitis]], and death. | Serious complications include severe [[pneumonia]], [[lung nodule]]s, and disseminated disease, where the [[fungus]] spreads throughout the body. The disseminated form of valley fever can devastate the body, causing [[skin]] [[ulcers]] and [[abscess]]es to [[bone]] lesions, severe [[Arthralgia|joint pain]], [[pericarditis]], [[prostatitis]],[[urinary tract infection]], [[meningitis]], and death. | ||
===Prognosis=== | ===Prognosis=== | ||
The prognosis of Coccidioidomycosis is good in immunocompetent patients. | The prognosis of [[Coccidioidomycosis]] is good in [[immunocompetent]] patients. It is self-limited in most of the patients and recovery is without any complications. The mortality rate is currently <0.07%. Approximately less than 1 % of patients develop disseminated [[coccidioidomycosis]]. | ||
==Diagnosis== | ==Diagnosis== | ||
===Symptoms=== | ===Symptoms=== | ||
A positive history of [[fever]], [[arthralgia]] and [[erythema nodosum]] are suggestive of coccidioidomycosis. The most common symptoms of | A positive history of [[fever]], [[arthralgia]] and [[erythema nodosum]] are suggestive of [[coccidioidomycosis]]. The most common symptoms of [[coccidioidomycosis]] include [[fever]] with chills, [[cough]], and [[pleuritic chest pain]]. | ||
===Physical Examination=== | ===Physical Examination=== | ||
The physical manifestations of the disease depends on the organ of involvement. In the order of incidence the most commonly involved organs are lungs, skin, bones, genitourinary system, central nervous system and other organs | The physical manifestations of the [[disease]] depends on the organ of involvement. In the order of incidence the most commonly involved [[organs]] are [[Lungs|lungs,]] [[skin]], [[bones]], [[genitourinary system]], [[central nervous system]] and other organs. | ||
===Laboratory Findings=== | ===Laboratory Findings=== | ||
The fungal infection can be demonstrated by microscopic detection of diagnostic cells in body fluids, exudates, [[sputum]] and [[biopsy]]-tissue. With specific [[nucleotide]] primers ''C.immitis'' [[DNA]] can be amplified by [[PCR]]. It can also be detected in culture by morphological identification or by using molecular probes that hybridize with ''C.immitis'' [[RNA]]. An indirect demonstration of fungal infection can be achieved also by serologic analysis detecting fungal [[antigen]] or host [[antibody]] produced against the fungus. | The [[fungal infection]] can be demonstrated by microscopic detection of diagnostic [[cells]] in body [[fluids]], [[Exudate|exudates]], [[sputum]] and [[biopsy]]-tissue. With specific [[nucleotide]] primers ''C.immitis'' [[DNA]] can be amplified by [[PCR]]. It can also be detected in culture by morphological identification or by using molecular probes that hybridize with ''[[Coccidioides immitis|C.immitis]]'' [[RNA]]. An indirect demonstration of fungal infection can be achieved also by serologic analysis detecting fungal [[antigen]] or host [[antibody]] produced against the fungus. | ||
===Chest Xray=== | ===Chest Xray=== | ||
Every patient suspected of coccidioides infection needs a chest X-ray. The findings can be variable ranging from infiltrates, nodules, cavities to mediastinal adenopathy and pleural effusions. Nodules in the upper part of lung is a usual finding, they are rarely calcified if at all. The nodules are better | Every patient suspected of coccidioides [[infection]] needs a chest X-ray. The findings can be variable ranging from infiltrates, [[nodules]], [[cavities]] to [[Mediastinal mass|mediastinal adenopathy]] and [[pleural effusions]]. [[Nodules]] in the upper part of the lung is a usual finding, they are rarely calcified if at all. The nodules are better visualized on CT scan and after contrast enhancement | ||
==Treatment== | ==Treatment== | ||
Antifungals are the | [[Antifungals]] are the mainstay of treatment. The drug therapy is guided by the severity of symptoms and the [[immune]] status of the patient. Since most patients are asymptomatic or mildly affected, no treatment or a single drug [[azole]] therapy ([[fluconazole]] or [[itraconazole]]) may be sufficient in these cases. More recently resistant cases are being treated with [[voriconazole]] or [[posaconazole]].[1]. However, patients with [[HIV]], [[immunocompromised]], those on [[steroids]] or [[pregnant]] females need much more aggressive approach. More severe cases may require [[Amphotericin B|intravenous amphotericin B]], with or without simultaneous oral azole therapy. [[Meningitis]] or [[vasculitis]] often need initial in-patient treatment with oral azoles plus [[intravenous]] [[amphotericin B]] with or without [[Amphotericin B|intrathecal amphotericin B]]. Untreated cases may sometimes be fatal. | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist|2}} | {{Reflist|2}} | ||
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{{WS}} | |||
[[Category:Pulmonology]] | [[Category:Pulmonology]] | ||
[[Category:Fungal diseases]] | [[Category:Fungal diseases]] | ||
[[Category:Biological weapons]] | [[Category:Biological weapons]] | ||
[[Category:Mature chapter]] | [[Category:Mature chapter]] | ||
[[Category:Overview complete]] | [[Category:Overview complete]] | ||
[[Category:Disease]] | [[Category:Disease]] | ||
[[Category:Emergency medicine]] | |||
[[Category:Up-To-Date]] | |||
[[Category:Infectious disease]] | |||
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Raviteja Guddeti, M.B.B.S. [2]
Overview
Coccidioidomycosis is a fungal disease caused by Coccidioides immitis or C. posadasii. It can be caused by breathing coccidioides spores in the air, especially after a soil disturbance. As per CDC [3] about 30-60 % people living in endemic areas are exposed to the infection sometimes in their lives.[1]
Historical Perspective
Coccidioidomycosis was first discovered in 1892 by, Alejandro Posadas (a medical student) along with his mentor. They grouped coccidioidomycosis under parasitic family. Emmet Rixford and T. Caspar Gilchrist coined the term coccidioidomycosis (resembling coccidia) in 1896. William Ophüls and Herbert C. Moffitt described its dimorphic nature and defined it as a fungal etiology in 1900. C. immitis was investigated by the United States during the 1950s and 1960s as a potential biological weapon. It was never standardized, around beyond a few field trials, it was never weaponized.
Pathophysiology
Coccidioidomycosis is a fungal infection, that is acquired through inhalation of the spores from the environment. Following inhalation, the spores gets deposited into terminal bronchioles and enlarge, become rounded and develop internal septations to form what are known as the spherules. It then disseminates through the lymphatics and blood stream to gain access to any organ of the body.[2][3][4][5]
Causes
Coccidioidomycosis is caused by an infection with Coccidioides immitis or Coccidioides posadasii
Epidemiology and Demographics
California state prisons have been particularly affected by Coccidioidomycosis, as far back as 1919. In 2005 and 2006, the Pleasant Valley State Prison near Coalinga and Avenal State Prison near Avenal on the western side of the San Joaquin Valley had the highest incidence rate in 2005, of at least 3,000 per 100,000. It is endemic in certain parts of Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Utah and northwestern Mexico.
Differentiating Coccidioidomycosis from other Diseases
Coccidioidomycosis presents as a mild flu-like illness that needs to be differentiated from a number of other fungal/bacterial disorders. These disorders have overlapping signs & symptoms such as fever, muscle pain along with rash that often needs detailed history, physical examination, and serological tests to pinpoint the diagnosis. Blastomycosis, Histoplasmosis, Aspergillosis, Pneumocystis pneumonia, Sporotrichosis.
Risk Factors
On occasion, those particularly susceptible, including pregnant women, people with weakened immune systems, and those of Asian, Hispanic and African descent, may develop a serious or even fatal illness from valley fever.
Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Natural History
Symptomatic infection (40% of cases) usually presents as an influenza-like illness with fever, cough, headaches, rash, and myalgia. Some patients fail to recover and develop chronic pulmonary infection or widespread disseminated infection (affecting meninges, soft tissues, joints, and bone). Severe pulmonary disease may develop in HIV-infected persons.[6][7]
Complications
Serious complications include severe pneumonia, lung nodules, and disseminated disease, where the fungus spreads throughout the body. The disseminated form of valley fever can devastate the body, causing skin ulcers and abscesses to bone lesions, severe joint pain, pericarditis, prostatitis,urinary tract infection, meningitis, and death.
Prognosis
The prognosis of Coccidioidomycosis is good in immunocompetent patients. It is self-limited in most of the patients and recovery is without any complications. The mortality rate is currently <0.07%. Approximately less than 1 % of patients develop disseminated coccidioidomycosis.
Diagnosis
Symptoms
A positive history of fever, arthralgia and erythema nodosum are suggestive of coccidioidomycosis. The most common symptoms of coccidioidomycosis include fever with chills, cough, and pleuritic chest pain.
Physical Examination
The physical manifestations of the disease depends on the organ of involvement. In the order of incidence the most commonly involved organs are lungs, skin, bones, genitourinary system, central nervous system and other organs.
Laboratory Findings
The fungal infection can be demonstrated by microscopic detection of diagnostic cells in body fluids, exudates, sputum and biopsy-tissue. With specific nucleotide primers C.immitis DNA can be amplified by PCR. It can also be detected in culture by morphological identification or by using molecular probes that hybridize with C.immitis RNA. An indirect demonstration of fungal infection can be achieved also by serologic analysis detecting fungal antigen or host antibody produced against the fungus.
Chest Xray
Every patient suspected of coccidioides infection needs a chest X-ray. The findings can be variable ranging from infiltrates, nodules, cavities to mediastinal adenopathy and pleural effusions. Nodules in the upper part of the lung is a usual finding, they are rarely calcified if at all. The nodules are better visualized on CT scan and after contrast enhancement
Treatment
Antifungals are the mainstay of treatment. The drug therapy is guided by the severity of symptoms and the immune status of the patient. Since most patients are asymptomatic or mildly affected, no treatment or a single drug azole therapy (fluconazole or itraconazole) may be sufficient in these cases. More recently resistant cases are being treated with voriconazole or posaconazole.[1]. However, patients with HIV, immunocompromised, those on steroids or pregnant females need much more aggressive approach. More severe cases may require intravenous amphotericin B, with or without simultaneous oral azole therapy. Meningitis or vasculitis often need initial in-patient treatment with oral azoles plus intravenous amphotericin B with or without intrathecal amphotericin B. Untreated cases may sometimes be fatal.
References
- ↑ Walsh TJ, Dixon DM (1996). Spectrum of Mycoses. In: Baron's Medical Microbiology (Baron S et al, eds.) (4th ed. ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. (via NCBI Bookshelf) ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.
- ↑ Stockamp NW, Thompson GR (2016). "Coccidioidomycosis". Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. 30 (1): 229–46. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2015.10.008. PMID 26739609.
- ↑ Twarog M, Thompson GR (2015). "Coccidioidomycosis: Recent Updates". Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 36 (5): 746–55. doi:10.1055/s-0035-1562900. PMID 26398540.
- ↑ DiCaudo DJ (2014). "Coccidioidomycosis". Semin Cutan Med Surg. 33 (3): 140–5. PMID 25577855.
- ↑ Malo J, Luraschi-Monjagatta C, Wolk DM, Thompson R, Hage CA, Knox KS (2014). "Update on the diagnosis of pulmonary coccidioidomycosis". Ann Am Thorac Soc. 11 (2): 243–53. doi:10.1513/AnnalsATS.201308-286FR. PMID 24575994.
- ↑ Ampel N (2005). "Coccidioidomycosis in persons infected with HIV type 1". Clin Infect Dis. 41 (8): 1174–8. PMID 16163637.
- ↑ Ryan KJ; Ray CG (editors) (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed. ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. pp. 680-83. ISBN 0838585299.