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{{Hypertension}}
{{Chronic hypertension}}
{{CMG}}
{{CMG}}; '''Assistant Editor-In-Chief:'''[[User:YazanDaaboul|Yazan Daaboul]], [[User:Sergekorjian|Serge Korjian]]


==Overview==
==Overview==
Established risk factors for essential [[hypertension]] include old age, male gender, African American ethnicity, [[dyslipidemia]], [[diabetes mellitus]], smoking, increased [[salt]] intake in diet, [[obesity]], and sedentary lifestyle. Studies are currently assessing the role of new emerging factors that might be considered as new risk factors for the development of hypertension.
==Risk Factors==
==Risk Factors==
Essential hypertension which is the more common form has several risk factors. Of most importance are -
Several factors have been robustly associated with hypertension, particularly cardiovascular risk factors. Nonetheless, other emerging factors have been linked to an increased risk of developing hypertension in select studies.


*Increased salt intake in diet
===Cardiovascular Risk Factors===
*Obesity
*'''Age''': Men > 55 years, women > 65 years<ref name="pmid24107724">{{cite journal| author=Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, Redán J, Zanchetti A, Böhm M et al.| title=2013 Practice guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and the European Society of Cardiology (ESC): ESH/ESC Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension. | journal=J Hypertens | year= 2013 | volume= 31 | issue= 10 | pages= 1925-38 | pmid=24107724 | doi=10.1097/HJH.0b013e328364ca4c | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24107724 }} </ref>
*Smoking
*'''Ethnicity''': African American<ref name="pmid11136953">{{cite journal| author=Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Harsha D et al.| title=Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2001 | volume= 344 | issue= 1 | pages= 3-10 | pmid=11136953 | doi=10.1056/NEJM200101043440101 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11136953  }} </ref>
*Increased alcohol intake
* '''Smoking''': Cigarettes <ref name="pmid14708551">{{cite journal| author=Gupta PC, Ray CS| title=Smokeless tobacco and health in India and South Asia. | journal=Respirology | year= 2003 | volume= 8 | issue= 4 | pages= 419-31 | pmid=14708551 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14708551  }} </ref>
*Family history where parents are hypertensive
*'''Alcohol''': Excessive intake of more than 2 alcoholic drinks per day<ref name="pmid7802765">{{cite journal| author=Marmot MG, Elliott P, Shipley MJ, Dyer AR, Ueshima H, Beevers DG et al.| title=Alcohol and blood pressure: the INTERSALT study. | journal=BMJ | year= 1994 | volume= 308 | issue= 6939 | pages= 1263-7 | pmid=7802765 | doi= | pmc=PMC2540174 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7802765  }} </ref>
*High cholesterol diet
*'''Dyslipidemia''': Elevated total cholesterol > 190 mg/dL and/or LDL > 115 mg/dL and/or HDL < 40 mg/dL for men and 45 mg/dL for women and/or triglycerides > 150 mg/dL<ref name="pmid24107724">{{cite journal| author=Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, Redán J, Zanchetti A, Böhm M et al.| title=2013 Practice guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and the European Society of Cardiology (ESC): ESH/ESC Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension. | journal=J Hypertens | year= 2013 | volume= 31 | issue= 10 | pages= 1925-38 | pmid=24107724 | doi=10.1097/HJH.0b013e328364ca4c | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24107724 }} </ref>
*Certain personality traits like in general people who are more commmonly impatient,suffer from high anxiety state and have hostile attitudes.
* '''Insulin resistance''': Fasting plasma glucose 102-125 mg/dL, and/or abnormal glucose tolerance test<ref name="pmid24107724">{{cite journal| author=Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, Redán J, Zanchetti A, Böhm M et al.| title=2013 Practice guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and the European Society of Cardiology (ESC): ESH/ESC Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension. | journal=J Hypertens | year= 2013 | volume= 31 | issue= 10 | pages= 1925-38 | pmid=24107724 | doi=10.1097/HJH.0b013e328364ca4c | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24107724 }} </ref>
* '''Known cardiovascular diseases'''<ref name="pmid16512265">{{cite journal| author=Cuddy ML| title=Treatment of hypertension: guidelines from JNC 7 (the seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure 1). | journal=J Pract Nurs | year= 2005 | volume= 55 | issue= 4 | pages= 17-21; quiz 22-3 | pmid=16512265 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16512265  }} </ref>
* '''Known kidney diseases'''<ref name="pmid16512265">{{cite journal| author=Cuddy ML| title=Treatment of hypertension: guidelines from JNC 7 (the seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure 1). | journal=J Pract Nurs | year= 2005 | volume= 55 | issue= 4 | pages= 17-21; quiz 22-3 | pmid=16512265 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16512265  }} </ref>
*'''Family history of hypertension''': Paternal or maternal<ref name="pmid18362257">{{cite journal| author=Wang NY, Young JH, Meoni LA, Ford DE, Erlinger TP, Klag MJ| title=Blood pressure change and risk of hypertension associated with parental hypertension: the Johns Hopkins Precursors Study. | journal=Arch Intern Med | year= 2008 |volume= 168 | issue= 6 | pages= 643-8 | pmid=18362257 | doi=10.1001/archinte.168.6.643 | pmc= |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18362257 }} </ref>
*'''Family history of CVD''': Men < 55 years and/or women < 65 years<ref name="pmid24107724">{{cite journal| author=Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, Redán J, Zanchetti A, Böhm M et al.| title=2013 Practice guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and the European Society of Cardiology (ESC): ESH/ESC Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension. | journal=J Hypertens | year= 2013 | volume= 31 | issue= 10 | pages= 1925-38 | pmid=24107724 | doi=10.1097/HJH.0b013e328364ca4c | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24107724 }} </ref>
* '''Diet''': Low in fruits and vegetables; excessive sodium intake<ref name="pmid19622819">{{cite journal| author=Forman JP, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC| title=Diet and lifestyle risk factors associated with incident hypertension in women. | journal=JAMA | year= 2009 | volume= 302 | issue= 4 | pages= 401-11 | pmid=19622819 | doi=10.1001/jama.2009.1060 | pmc=PMC2803081 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19622819  }} </ref>
*'''Obesity and recent weight gain''': BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2<ref name="pmid2508915">{{cite journal| author=Sonne-Holm S, Sørensen TI, Jensen G, Schnohr P| title=Independent effects of weight change and attained body weight on prevalence of arterial hypertension in obese and non-obese men. | journal=BMJ | year= 1989 | volume= 299 | issue= 6702 | pages= 767-70 | pmid=2508915 | doi= | pmc=PMC1837623 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2508915  }} </ref> or waist circumference for men > 102 cm or for women > 88 cm (in Caucasian adults)
* '''Sedentary lifestyle'''<ref name="pmid16512265">{{cite journal| author=Cuddy ML| title=Treatment of hypertension: guidelines from JNC 7 (the seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure 1). | journal=J Pract Nurs | year= 2005 | volume= 55 | issue= 4 | pages= 17-21; quiz 22-3 | pmid=16512265 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16512265  }} </ref>


There is a debate over Hypertension to be more common among black population as compared to whites.It is seen to be more common though exact though there is no exact reason or mechanism for it.Currently, healthcare professionals identify it to be more common due to
===Emerging Risk Factors===
* [[Vitamin D]] insufficiency<ref name="pmid19687790">{{cite journal| author=Pilz S, Tomaschitz A, Ritz E, Pieber TR| title=Vitamin D status and arterial hypertension: a systematic review. | journal=Nat Rev Cardiol | year= 2009 | volume= 6 | issue= 10 | pages= 621-30 | pmid=19687790 | doi=10.1038/nrcardio.2009.135 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19687790  }} </ref>
* Low ionized serum [[calcium]]<ref name="pmid23181228">{{cite journal| author=Hazari MA, Arifuddin MS, Muzzakar S, Reddy VD| title=Serum calcium level in hypertension. | journal=N Am J Med Sci | year= 2012 | volume= 4 | issue= 11 | pages= 569-72 | pmid=23181228 | doi=10.4103/1947-2714.103316 | pmc=PMC3503375 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23181228  }} </ref>
* [[Hyperinsulinemia]]<ref name="pmid23122695">{{cite journal| author=Park SE, Rhee EJ, Park CY, Oh KW, Park SW, Kim SW et al.| title=Impact of hyperinsulinemia on the development of hypertension in normotensive, nondiabetic adults: a 4-year follow-up study. | journal=Metabolism | year= 2012 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=23122695 | doi=10.1016/j.metabol.2012.09.013 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23122695  }} </ref>
* Preterm birth<ref name="pmid20494733">{{cite journal| author=Norman M| title=Preterm birth--an emerging risk factor for adult hypertension? | journal=Semin Perinatol | year= 2010 | volume= 34 | issue= 3 | pages= 183-7 | pmid=20494733 | doi=10.1053/j.semperi.2010.02.009 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20494733  }} </ref>
* [[Neurofibromatosis]] Type II<ref name="pmid21638762">{{cite journal| author=Hornigold RE, Golding JF, Ferner RE, Ferner RE| title=Neurofibromatosis 2: a novel risk factor for hypertension? | journal=Am J Med Genet A | year= 2011 | volume= 155A | issue= 7 | pages= 1721-2 | pmid=21638762 | doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.34035 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21638762  }} </ref>
* Plasma reactive carbonyl species<ref name="pmid21323510">{{cite journal| author=Chen K, Xie F, Liu S, Li G, Chen Y, Shi W et al.| title=Plasma reactive carbonyl species: Potential risk factor for hypertension. | journal=Free Radic Res | year= 2011 | volume= 45 | issue= 5 | pages= 568-74 | pmid=21323510 | doi=10.3109/10715762.2011.557723 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21323510  }} </ref>
* Hyperuricemia<ref name="pmid22672087">{{cite journal| author=Feig DI| title=The role of uric acid in the pathogenesis of hypertension in the young. | journal=J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) | year= 2012 | volume= 14 | issue= 6 | pages= 346-52 | pmid=22672087 | doi=10.1111/j.1751-7176.2012.00662.x | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22672087  }} </ref>
* [[Major depression]]<ref name="pmid19196807">{{cite journal| author=Patten SB, Williams JV, Lavorato DH, Campbell NR, Eliasziw M, Campbell TS| title=Major depression as a risk factor for high blood pressure: epidemiologic evidence from a national longitudinal study. | journal=Psychosom Med | year= 2009 | volume= 71 | issue= 3 | pages= 273-9 | pmid=19196807 | doi=10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181988e5f | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19196807  }} </ref>


*Increased salt intake and cholesterol diet
*Lower socioeconomic status/stress
==References==
==References==


Latest revision as of 14:02, 17 May 2017

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Assistant Editor-In-Chief:Yazan Daaboul, Serge Korjian

Overview

Established risk factors for essential hypertension include old age, male gender, African American ethnicity, dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus, smoking, increased salt intake in diet, obesity, and sedentary lifestyle. Studies are currently assessing the role of new emerging factors that might be considered as new risk factors for the development of hypertension.

Risk Factors

Several factors have been robustly associated with hypertension, particularly cardiovascular risk factors. Nonetheless, other emerging factors have been linked to an increased risk of developing hypertension in select studies.

Cardiovascular Risk Factors

  • Age: Men > 55 years, women > 65 years[1]
  • Ethnicity: African American[2]
  • Smoking: Cigarettes [3]
  • Alcohol: Excessive intake of more than 2 alcoholic drinks per day[4]
  • Dyslipidemia: Elevated total cholesterol > 190 mg/dL and/or LDL > 115 mg/dL and/or HDL < 40 mg/dL for men and 45 mg/dL for women and/or triglycerides > 150 mg/dL[1]
  • Insulin resistance: Fasting plasma glucose 102-125 mg/dL, and/or abnormal glucose tolerance test[1]
  • Known cardiovascular diseases[5]
  • Known kidney diseases[5]
  • Family history of hypertension: Paternal or maternal[6]
  • Family history of CVD: Men < 55 years and/or women < 65 years[1]
  • Diet: Low in fruits and vegetables; excessive sodium intake[7]
  • Obesity and recent weight gain: BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2[8] or waist circumference for men > 102 cm or for women > 88 cm (in Caucasian adults)
  • Sedentary lifestyle[5]

Emerging Risk Factors

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, Redán J, Zanchetti A, Böhm M; et al. (2013). "2013 Practice guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and the European Society of Cardiology (ESC): ESH/ESC Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension". J Hypertens. 31 (10): 1925–38. doi:10.1097/HJH.0b013e328364ca4c. PMID 24107724.
  2. ↑ Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Harsha D; et al. (2001). "Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group". N Engl J Med. 344 (1): 3–10. doi:10.1056/NEJM200101043440101. PMID 11136953.
  3. ↑ Gupta PC, Ray CS (2003). "Smokeless tobacco and health in India and South Asia". Respirology. 8 (4): 419–31. PMID 14708551.
  4. ↑ Marmot MG, Elliott P, Shipley MJ, Dyer AR, Ueshima H, Beevers DG; et al. (1994). "Alcohol and blood pressure: the INTERSALT study". BMJ. 308 (6939): 1263–7. PMC 2540174. PMID 7802765.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Cuddy ML (2005). "Treatment of hypertension: guidelines from JNC 7 (the seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure 1)". J Pract Nurs. 55 (4): 17–21, quiz 22-3. PMID 16512265.
  6. ↑ Wang NY, Young JH, Meoni LA, Ford DE, Erlinger TP, Klag MJ (2008). "Blood pressure change and risk of hypertension associated with parental hypertension: the Johns Hopkins Precursors Study". Arch Intern Med. 168 (6): 643–8. doi:10.1001/archinte.168.6.643. PMID 18362257.
  7. ↑ Forman JP, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC (2009). "Diet and lifestyle risk factors associated with incident hypertension in women". JAMA. 302 (4): 401–11. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1060. PMC 2803081. PMID 19622819.
  8. ↑ Sonne-Holm S, Sørensen TI, Jensen G, Schnohr P (1989). "Independent effects of weight change and attained body weight on prevalence of arterial hypertension in obese and non-obese men". BMJ. 299 (6702): 767–70. PMC 1837623. PMID 2508915.
  9. ↑ Pilz S, Tomaschitz A, Ritz E, Pieber TR (2009). "Vitamin D status and arterial hypertension: a systematic review". Nat Rev Cardiol. 6 (10): 621–30. doi:10.1038/nrcardio.2009.135. PMID 19687790.
  10. ↑ Hazari MA, Arifuddin MS, Muzzakar S, Reddy VD (2012). "Serum calcium level in hypertension". N Am J Med Sci. 4 (11): 569–72. doi:10.4103/1947-2714.103316. PMC 3503375. PMID 23181228.
  11. ↑ Park SE, Rhee EJ, Park CY, Oh KW, Park SW, Kim SW; et al. (2012). "Impact of hyperinsulinemia on the development of hypertension in normotensive, nondiabetic adults: a 4-year follow-up study". Metabolism. doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2012.09.013. PMID 23122695.
  12. ↑ Norman M (2010). "Preterm birth--an emerging risk factor for adult hypertension?". Semin Perinatol. 34 (3): 183–7. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2010.02.009. PMID 20494733.
  13. ↑ Hornigold RE, Golding JF, Ferner RE, Ferner RE (2011). "Neurofibromatosis 2: a novel risk factor for hypertension?". Am J Med Genet A. 155A (7): 1721–2. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.34035. PMID 21638762.
  14. ↑ Chen K, Xie F, Liu S, Li G, Chen Y, Shi W; et al. (2011). "Plasma reactive carbonyl species: Potential risk factor for hypertension". Free Radic Res. 45 (5): 568–74. doi:10.3109/10715762.2011.557723. PMID 21323510.
  15. ↑ Feig DI (2012). "The role of uric acid in the pathogenesis of hypertension in the young". J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 14 (6): 346–52. doi:10.1111/j.1751-7176.2012.00662.x. PMID 22672087.
  16. ↑ Patten SB, Williams JV, Lavorato DH, Campbell NR, Eliasziw M, Campbell TS (2009). "Major depression as a risk factor for high blood pressure: epidemiologic evidence from a national longitudinal study". Psychosom Med. 71 (3): 273–9. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181988e5f. PMID 19196807.

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