COVID-19 laboratory findings: Difference between revisions

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==== Leukocytosis ====
==== Leukocytosis ====


*[[Leukocytosis]] is seen in 11.4% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 4.8% of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623">{{cite journal| author=Lippi G, Plebani M| title=The critical role of laboratory medicine during coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and other viral outbreaks. | journal=Clin Chem Lab Med | year= 2020 | volume= 58 | issue= 7 | pages= 1063-1069 | pmid=32191623 | doi=10.1515/cclm-2020-0240 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32191623  }} </ref>
*
*In patients with COVID-19 infection, leukocytosis may be an indication of a bacterial infection or superinfection.<ref name="pmid32191623" />
*In patients with COVID-19 infection, leukocytosis may be an indication of a bacterial infection or superinfection.<ref name="pmid32191623">{{cite journal| author=Lippi G, Plebani M| title=The critical role of laboratory medicine during coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and other viral outbreaks. | journal=Clin Chem Lab Med | year= 2020 | volume= 58 | issue= 7 | pages= 1063-1069 | pmid=32191623 | doi=10.1515/cclm-2020-0240 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32191623  }} </ref>


==== Increase in C-reactive protein (CRP)  ====
==== Increase in C-reactive protein (CRP)  ====


*Increase in CRP is seen in 81.5% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 56.4% of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623" />
*
*CRP is an [[Acute phase protein|acute phase reactant]] that increases in conditions with inflammation.<ref name="pmid32311826">{{cite journal| author=Frater JL, Zini G, d'Onofrio G, Rogers HJ| title=COVID-19 and the clinical hematology laboratory. | journal=Int J Lab Hematol | year= 2020 | volume= 42 Suppl 1 | issue=  | pages= 11-18 | pmid=32311826 | doi=10.1111/ijlh.13229 | pmc=7264622 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32311826  }} </ref>
*CRP is an [[Acute phase protein|acute phase reactant]] that increases in conditions with inflammation.<ref name="pmid32311826">{{cite journal| author=Frater JL, Zini G, d'Onofrio G, Rogers HJ| title=COVID-19 and the clinical hematology laboratory. | journal=Int J Lab Hematol | year= 2020 | volume= 42 Suppl 1 | issue=  | pages= 11-18 | pmid=32311826 | doi=10.1111/ijlh.13229 | pmc=7264622 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32311826  }} </ref>
*In patients with COVID-19 infection, increase in [[CRP]] may be an indication of severe viral infection or [[sepsis]] and [[viremia]].<ref name="pmid32191623" />
*In patients with COVID-19 infection, increase in [[CRP]] may be an indication of severe viral infection or [[sepsis]] and [[viremia]].<ref name="pmid32191623" />
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==== Increase in procalcitonin  ====
==== Increase in procalcitonin  ====


*Increase in [[procalcitonin]] is seen in 13.7% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 3.7% of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623" />
*
*In sepsis, the activation and adherence of [[Monocyte|monocytes]] increase [[procalcitonin]], therefore [[procalcitonin]] in a biomarker for sepsis and septic shock.<ref name="pmid24982830">{{cite journal| author=Meisner M| title=Update on procalcitonin measurements. | journal=Ann Lab Med | year= 2014 | volume= 34 | issue= 4 | pages= 263-73 | pmid=24982830 | doi=10.3343/alm.2014.34.4.263 | pmc=4071182 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24982830  }} </ref>
*In sepsis, the activation and adherence of [[Monocyte|monocytes]] increase [[procalcitonin]], therefore [[procalcitonin]] in a biomarker for sepsis and septic shock.<ref name="pmid24982830">{{cite journal| author=Meisner M| title=Update on procalcitonin measurements. | journal=Ann Lab Med | year= 2014 | volume= 34 | issue= 4 | pages= 263-73 | pmid=24982830 | doi=10.3343/alm.2014.34.4.263 | pmc=4071182 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24982830  }} </ref>
*In patients with COVID-19 infection, increase in [[procalcitonin]] may be an indication of bacterial infection or [[superinfection]].<ref name="pmid32191623" />
*In patients with COVID-19 infection, increase in [[procalcitonin]] may be an indication of bacterial infection or [[superinfection]].<ref name="pmid32191623" />
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==== Increase in aspartate aminotransferase (AST)  ====
==== Increase in aspartate aminotransferase (AST)  ====


*Increase in [[Aspartate transaminase|AST]] is seen in 39.4% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 18.2% of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623" />
*
*In patients with [[COVID-19]] infection, increase in [[aminotransferases]] may indicate injury to the [[liver]] or multi-system damage.<ref name="pmid32191623" />
*In patients with [[COVID-19]] infection, increase in [[aminotransferases]] may indicate injury to the [[liver]] or multi-system damage.<ref name="pmid32191623" />


==== Increase in alanine aminotransferase (ALT)  ====
==== Increase in alanine aminotransferase (ALT)  ====


*Increase in [[ALT]] is seen in 28.1% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 19.8%  of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623" />
*
*[[Alanine transaminase|ALT]] is produced by liver cells and is increased in liver conditions.<ref name="pmid32311826" />
*[[Alanine transaminase|ALT]] is produced by liver cells and is increased in liver conditions.<ref name="pmid32311826" />
*In patients with [[COVID-19]] infection, increase in [[aminotransferases]] may indicate injury to the liver or multi-system damage.<ref name="pmid32191623" />
*In patients with [[COVID-19]] infection, increase in [[aminotransferases]] may indicate injury to the liver or multi-system damage.<ref name="pmid32191623" />
Line 44: Line 44:
==== Increase in lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) ====
==== Increase in lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) ====


* Increase in [[Lactate dehydrogenase|LDH]] is seen in 58.1% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 37.2% of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623" />
*  
*LDH is expressed in almost all cells and an increase in [[LDH]] could be seen in damage to any of the cell types.<ref name="pmid32311826" />
*LDH is expressed in almost all cells and an increase in [[LDH]] could be seen in damage to any of the cell types.<ref name="pmid32311826" />
*In patients with COVID-19 infection, increase in [[Lactate dehydrogenase|LDH]] may indicate injury to the lungs or multi-system damage.<ref name="pmid32191623" />
*In patients with COVID-19 infection, increase in [[Lactate dehydrogenase|LDH]] may indicate injury to the lungs or multi-system damage.<ref name="pmid32191623" />
Line 50: Line 50:
==== Increase in monocyte volume distribution width (MDW) ====
==== Increase in monocyte volume distribution width (MDW) ====


*MDW was found to be increased in all patients with COVID-19 infection, particularly in those with the worst conditions.<ref name="pmid32191623" />
*


==== Increase in total bilirubin ====
==== Increase in total bilirubin ====


*Increase in total bilirubin is seen in 13.3% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 9.9% of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623" />
*
*Bilirubin  is produced by liver cells and increases in liver and biliary conditions.<ref name="pmid32311826" />
*Bilirubin  is produced by liver cells and increases in liver and biliary conditions.<ref name="pmid32311826" />
*In patients with COVID-19 infection, increase in total bilirubin may indicate injury to the liver.<ref name="pmid32191623" />
*In patients with COVID-19 infection, increase in total bilirubin may indicate injury to the liver.<ref name="pmid32191623" />
Line 60: Line 60:
==== Increase in creatinine ====
==== Increase in creatinine ====


*Increase in [[creatinine]] is seen in 4.3% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 1% of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623" />
*
*Creatinin is produced in the liver and excreted by the kidneys; [[creatinine]] increases when there is decrease in [[glomerular filtration rate]].<ref name="pmid32311826" />
*Creatinin is produced in the liver and excreted by the kidneys; [[creatinine]] increases when there is decrease in [[glomerular filtration rate]].<ref name="pmid32311826" />
*In patients with COVID-19 infection, increase in [[creatinine]] may indicate injury to the kidneys.<ref name="pmid32191623" />
*In patients with COVID-19 infection, increase in [[creatinine]] may indicate injury to the kidneys.<ref name="pmid32191623" />
Line 86: Line 86:
* On January 30, 2020, the [[outbreak]] was declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern.
* On January 30, 2020, the [[outbreak]] was declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern.
* On March 12, 2020, the COVID-19 outbreak was declared a [[pandemic]] by the [[World Health Organization|World Health Organization (WHO)]].
* On March 12, 2020, the COVID-19 outbreak was declared a [[pandemic]] by the [[World Health Organization|World Health Organization (WHO)]].
== Other Hematological Findings ==
* Leukocytosis
* Increase in C-reactive protein (CRP)
* Increase in procalcitonin
* Increase in ferritin
* Increase in aspartate aminotransferase (AST)
*  Increase in alanine aminotransferase (ALT)
* Increase in lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)
* Increase in monocyte volume distribution width (MDW)
* Increase in total bilirubin
* Increase in creatinine
* Increase in cardiac troponins
* Decrease in albumin
* Increase in interleukin-6 (IL-6)
* Thrombocytosis
== Epidemiology ==
* [[Leukocytosis]] is seen in 11.4% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 4.8% of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623" />
* Increase in CRP is seen in 81.5% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 56.4% of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623" />
* Increase in [[procalcitonin]] is seen in 13.7% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 3.7% of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623" />
* Increase in [[Aspartate transaminase|AST]] is seen in 39.4% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 18.2% of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623" />
* Increase in [[ALT]] is seen in 28.1% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 19.8%  of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623" />
* Increase in [[Lactate dehydrogenase|LDH]] is seen in 58.1% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 37.2% of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623" />
* MDW was found to be increased in all patients with COVID-19 infection, particularly in those with the worst conditions.<ref name="pmid32191623" />
* Increase in total bilirubin is seen in 13.3% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 9.9% of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623" />
* Increase in [[creatinine]] is seen in 4.3% of patients with severe [[COVID-19]] infection compared to 1% of patients with non-severe infection.<ref name="pmid32109013" /><ref name="pmid32191623" />
*


==Classification==
==Classification==

Revision as of 14:19, 27 June 2020

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief:

Synonyms and keywords:

Overview

Other Laboratory Findings

Leukocytosis

  • In patients with COVID-19 infection, leukocytosis may be an indication of a bacterial infection or superinfection.[1]

Increase in C-reactive protein (CRP)  

Increase in procalcitonin

Increase in ferritin

  • There have been different reports regarding the association of increase in ferritin with death in COVID-19 infection; for example, there has been a report that increase in ferritin is associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) but not death[4], while another one reports an association between increase in ferritin and death in COVID-19 infection[5].

Increase in aspartate aminotransferase (AST)  

Increase in alanine aminotransferase (ALT)  

  • ALT is produced by liver cells and is increased in liver conditions.[2]
  • In patients with COVID-19 infection, increase in aminotransferases may indicate injury to the liver or multi-system damage.[1]

Increase in lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)

  • LDH is expressed in almost all cells and an increase in LDH could be seen in damage to any of the cell types.[2]
  • In patients with COVID-19 infection, increase in LDH may indicate injury to the lungs or multi-system damage.[1]

Increase in monocyte volume distribution width (MDW)

Increase in total bilirubin

  • Bilirubin  is produced by liver cells and increases in liver and biliary conditions.[2]
  • In patients with COVID-19 infection, increase in total bilirubin may indicate injury to the liver.[1]

Increase in creatinine

Increase in cardiac troponins

  • In myocardial infarction and acute coronary syndrome are used for diagnosis.[2]
  • In patients with COVID-19 infection, increase in cardiac troponins may indicate cardiac injury.[1]

Decrease in albumin

  • Albumin may be decreased in many conditions such as sepsis, renal disease or malnutrition.[2]
  • In patients with COVID-19 infection, decrease in albumin may indicate liver function abnormality.[1]

Increase in interleukin-6 (IL-6)

  • Increase in IL-6 has been reported to be associated with death in COVID-19 infection.[4]


Historical Perspective

Other Hematological Findings

  • Leukocytosis
  • Increase in C-reactive protein (CRP)
  • Increase in procalcitonin
  • Increase in ferritin
  • Increase in aspartate aminotransferase (AST)
  •  Increase in alanine aminotransferase (ALT)
  • Increase in lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)
  • Increase in monocyte volume distribution width (MDW)
  • Increase in total bilirubin
  • Increase in creatinine
  • Increase in cardiac troponins
  • Decrease in albumin
  • Increase in interleukin-6 (IL-6)
  • Thrombocytosis

Epidemiology

  • Leukocytosis is seen in 11.4% of patients with severe COVID-19 infection compared to 4.8% of patients with non-severe infection.[8][1]
  • Increase in CRP is seen in 81.5% of patients with severe COVID-19 infection compared to 56.4% of patients with non-severe infection.[8][1]
  • Increase in procalcitonin is seen in 13.7% of patients with severe COVID-19 infection compared to 3.7% of patients with non-severe infection.[8][1]
  • Increase in AST is seen in 39.4% of patients with severe COVID-19 infection compared to 18.2% of patients with non-severe infection.[8][1]
  • Increase in ALT is seen in 28.1% of patients with severe COVID-19 infection compared to 19.8% of patients with non-severe infection.[8][1]
  • Increase in LDH is seen in 58.1% of patients with severe COVID-19 infection compared to 37.2% of patients with non-severe infection.[8][1]
  • MDW was found to be increased in all patients with COVID-19 infection, particularly in those with the worst conditions.[1]
  • Increase in total bilirubin is seen in 13.3% of patients with severe COVID-19 infection compared to 9.9% of patients with non-severe infection.[8][1]
  • Increase in creatinine is seen in 4.3% of patients with severe COVID-19 infection compared to 1% of patients with non-severe infection.[8][1]

Classification

There is no established system for the classification of [disease name].

OR

[Disease name] may be classified according to [classification method] into [number] subtypes/groups: [group1], [group2], [group3], and [group4].

OR

[Disease name] may be classified into [large number > 6] subtypes based on [classification method 1], [classification method 2], and [classification method 3]. [Disease name] may be classified into several subtypes based on [classification method 1], [classification method 2], and [classification method 3].

OR

Based on the duration of symptoms, [disease name] may be classified as either acute or chronic.

OR

If the staging system involves specific and characteristic findings and features: According to the [staging system + reference], there are [number] stages of [malignancy name] based on the [finding1], [finding2], and [finding3]. Each stage is assigned a [letter/number1] and a [letter/number2] that designate the [feature1] and [feature2].

OR

The staging of [malignancy name] is based on the [staging system].

OR

There is no established system for the staging of [malignancy name].

Pathophysiology

The exact pathogenesis of [disease name] is not fully understood.

OR

It is thought that [disease name] is the result of / is mediated by / is produced by / is caused by either [hypothesis 1], [hypothesis 2], or [hypothesis 3].

OR

[Pathogen name] is usually transmitted via the [transmission route] route to the human host.

OR

Following transmission/ingestion, the [pathogen] uses the [entry site] to invade the [cell name] cell.

OR


[Disease or malignancy name] arises from [cell name]s, which are [cell type] cells that are normally involved in [function of cells].

OR

The progression to [disease name] usually involves the [molecular pathway].

OR

The pathophysiology of [disease/malignancy] depends on the histological subtype.

Causes

Disease name] may be caused by [cause1], [cause2], or [cause3].

OR

Common causes of [disease] include [cause1], [cause2], and [cause3].

OR

The most common cause of [disease name] is [cause 1]. Less common causes of [disease name] include [cause 2], [cause 3], and [cause 4].

OR

The cause of [disease name] has not been identified. To review risk factors for the development of [disease name], click here.

Differentiating ((Page name)) from other Diseases

[Disease name] must be differentiated from other diseases that cause [clinical feature 1], [clinical feature 2], and [clinical feature 3], such as [differential dx1], [differential dx2], and [differential dx3].

OR

[Disease name] must be differentiated from [[differential dx1], [differential dx2], and [differential dx3].

Epidemiology and Demographics

The incidence/prevalence of [disease name] is approximately [number range] per 100,000 individuals worldwide.

OR

In [year], the incidence/prevalence of [disease name] was estimated to be [number range] cases per 100,000 individuals worldwide.

OR

In [year], the incidence of [disease name] is approximately [number range] per 100,000 individuals with a case-fatality rate of [number range]%.


Patients of all age groups may develop [disease name].

OR

The incidence of [disease name] increases with age; the median age at diagnosis is [#] years.

OR

[Disease name] commonly affects individuals younger than/older than [number of years] years of age.

OR

[Chronic disease name] is usually first diagnosed among [age group].

OR

[Acute disease name] commonly affects [age group].


There is no racial predilection to [disease name].

OR

[Disease name] usually affects individuals of the [race 1] race. [Race 2] individuals are less likely to develop [disease name].


[Disease name] affects men and women equally.

OR

[Gender 1] are more commonly affected by [disease name] than [gender 2]. The [gender 1] to [gender 2] ratio is approximately [number > 1] to 1.


The majority of [disease name] cases are reported in [geographical region].

OR

[Disease name] is a common/rare disease that tends to affect [patient population 1] and [patient population 2].

Risk Factors

There are no established risk factors for [disease name].

OR

The most potent risk factor in the development of [disease name] is [risk factor 1]. Other risk factors include [risk factor 2], [risk factor 3], and [risk factor 4].

OR

Common risk factors in the development of [disease name] include [risk factor 1], [risk factor 2], [risk factor 3], and [risk factor 4].

OR

Common risk factors in the development of [disease name] may be occupational, environmental, genetic, and viral.

Screening

There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for [disease/malignancy].

OR

According to the [guideline name], screening for [disease name] is not recommended.

OR

According to the [guideline name], screening for [disease name] by [test 1] is recommended every [duration] among patients with [condition 1], [condition 2], and [condition 3].

Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

If left untreated, [#]% of patients with [disease name] may progress to develop [manifestation 1], [manifestation 2], and [manifestation 3].

OR

Common complications of [disease name] include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

OR

Prognosis is generally excellent/good/poor, and the 1/5/10-year mortality/survival rate of patients with [disease name] is approximately [#]%.

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Study of Choice

The diagnosis of [disease name] is made when at least [number] of the following [number] diagnostic criteria are met: [criterion 1], [criterion 2], [criterion 3], and [criterion 4].

OR

The diagnosis of [disease name] is based on the [criteria name] criteria, which include [criterion 1], [criterion 2], and [criterion 3].

OR

The diagnosis of [disease name] is based on the [definition name] definition, which includes [criterion 1], [criterion 2], and [criterion 3].

OR

There are no established criteria for the diagnosis of [disease name].

History and Symptoms

The majority of patients with [disease name] are asymptomatic.

OR

The hallmark of [disease name] is [finding]. A positive history of [finding 1] and [finding 2] is suggestive of [disease name]. The most common symptoms of [disease name] include [symptom 1], [symptom 2], and [symptom 3]. Common symptoms of [disease] include [symptom 1], [symptom 2], and [symptom 3]. Less common symptoms of [disease name] include [symptom 1], [symptom 2], and [symptom 3].

Physical Examination

Patients with [disease name] usually appear [general appearance]. Physical examination of patients with [disease name] is usually remarkable for [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

Common physical examination findings of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

The presence of [finding(s)] on physical examination is diagnostic of [disease name].

OR

The presence of [finding(s)] on physical examination is highly suggestive of [disease name].

Laboratory Findings

An elevated/reduced concentration of serum/blood/urinary/CSF/other [lab test] is diagnostic of [disease name].

OR

Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of [disease name] include [abnormal test 1], [abnormal test 2], and [abnormal test 3].

OR

[Test] is usually normal among patients with [disease name].

OR

Some patients with [disease name] may have elevated/reduced concentration of [test], which is usually suggestive of [progression/complication].

OR

There are no diagnostic laboratory findings associated with [disease name].

Electrocardiogram

There are no ECG findings associated with [disease name].

OR

An ECG may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an ECG suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

X-ray

There are no x-ray findings associated with [disease name].

OR

An x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an x-ray suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no x-ray findings associated with [disease name]. However, an x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

Echocardiography or Ultrasound

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with [disease name].

OR

Echocardiography/ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an echocardiography/ultrasound suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with [disease name]. However, an echocardiography/ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

CT scan

There are no CT scan findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Location] CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on CT scan suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no CT scan findings associated with [disease name]. However, a CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

MRI

There are no MRI findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Location] MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on MRI suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no MRI findings associated with [disease name]. However, a MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

Other Imaging Findings

There are no other imaging findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Imaging modality] may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an [imaging modality] suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

Other Diagnostic Studies

There are no other diagnostic studies associated with [disease name].

OR

[Diagnostic study] may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

Other diagnostic studies for [disease name] include [diagnostic study 1], which demonstrates [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3], and [diagnostic study 2], which demonstrates [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

Treatment

Medical Therapy

There is no treatment for [disease name]; the mainstay of therapy is supportive care.

OR

Supportive therapy for [disease name] includes [therapy 1], [therapy 2], and [therapy 3].

OR

The majority of cases of [disease name] are self-limited and require only supportive care.

OR

[Disease name] is a medical emergency and requires prompt treatment.

OR

The mainstay of treatment for [disease name] is [therapy].

OR   The optimal therapy for [malignancy name] depends on the stage at diagnosis.

OR

[Therapy] is recommended among all patients who develop [disease name].

OR

Pharmacologic medical therapy is recommended among patients with [disease subclass 1], [disease subclass 2], and [disease subclass 3].

OR

Pharmacologic medical therapies for [disease name] include (either) [therapy 1], [therapy 2], and/or [therapy 3].

OR

Empiric therapy for [disease name] depends on [disease factor 1] and [disease factor 2].

OR

Patients with [disease subclass 1] are treated with [therapy 1], whereas patients with [disease subclass 2] are treated with [therapy 2].

Surgery

Surgical intervention is not recommended for the management of [disease name].

OR

Surgery is not the first-line treatment option for patients with [disease name]. Surgery is usually reserved for patients with either [indication 1], [indication 2], and [indication 3]

OR

The mainstay of treatment for [disease name] is medical therapy. Surgery is usually reserved for patients with either [indication 1], [indication 2], and/or [indication 3].

OR

The feasibility of surgery depends on the stage of [malignancy] at diagnosis.

OR

Surgery is the mainstay of treatment for [disease or malignancy].

Primary Prevention

There are no established measures for the primary prevention of [disease name].

OR

There are no available vaccines against [disease name].

OR

Effective measures for the primary prevention of [disease name] include [measure1], [measure2], and [measure3].

OR

[Vaccine name] vaccine is recommended for [patient population] to prevent [disease name]. Other primary prevention strategies include [strategy 1], [strategy 2], and [strategy 3].

Secondary Prevention

There are no established measures for the secondary prevention of [disease name].

OR

Effective measures for the secondary prevention of [disease name] include [strategy 1], [strategy 2], and [strategy 3].

References

  1. 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 Lippi G, Plebani M (2020). "The critical role of laboratory medicine during coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and other viral outbreaks". Clin Chem Lab Med. 58 (7): 1063–1069. doi:10.1515/cclm-2020-0240. PMID 32191623 Check |pmid= value (help).
  2. 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Frater JL, Zini G, d'Onofrio G, Rogers HJ (2020). "COVID-19 and the clinical hematology laboratory". Int J Lab Hematol. 42 Suppl 1: 11–18. doi:10.1111/ijlh.13229. PMC 7264622 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32311826 Check |pmid= value (help).
  3. Meisner M (2014). "Update on procalcitonin measurements". Ann Lab Med. 34 (4): 263–73. doi:10.3343/alm.2014.34.4.263. PMC 4071182. PMID 24982830.
  4. 4.0 4.1 Wu C, Chen X, Cai Y, Xia J, Zhou X, Xu S; et al. (2020). "Risk Factors Associated With Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome and Death in Patients With Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pneumonia in Wuhan, China". JAMA Intern Med. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.0994. PMC 7070509 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32167524 Check |pmid= value (help).
  5. Zhou F, Yu T, Du R, Fan G, Liu Y, Liu Z; et al. (2020). "Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study". Lancet. 395 (10229): 1054–1062. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30566-3. PMC 7270627 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32171076 Check |pmid= value (help).
  6. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/about/index.html. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  7. Lu, Jian; Cui, Jie; Qian, Zhaohui; Wang, Yirong; Zhang, Hong; Duan, Yuange; Wu, Xinkai; Yao, Xinmin; Song, Yuhe; Li, Xiang; Wu, Changcheng; Tang, Xiaolu (2020). "On the origin and continuing evolution of SARS-CoV-2". National Science Review. doi:10.1093/nsr/nwaa036. ISSN 2095-5138.
  8. 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7


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