Autism spectrum disorder

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Kiran Singh, M.D. [2]

Overview

The autism spectrum or autistic spectrum describes a range of conditions classified as neurodevelopmental disorders in the fifth revision of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th edition (DSM-5). The DSM-5, published in 2013, redefined the autism spectrum to encompass the previous (DSM-IV-TR) diagnoses of autism, Asperger syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), childhood disintegrative disorder, and Rett syndrome.[1] These disorders are characterized by social deficits and communication difficulties, stereotyped or repetitive behaviors and interests, and in some cases, cognitive delays.

Classification

Template:Further2

A revision to autism spectrum disorder (ASD) was proposed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders version 5 (DSM-5), released May 2013.[2] The new diagnosis encompasses previous diagnoses of autistic disorder, Asperger's disorder, childhood disintegrative disorder, and PDD-NOS. Rather than categorizing these diagnoses, the DSM-5 will adopt a dimensional approach to diagnosing disorders that fall underneath the autism spectrum umbrella. It is thought that individuals with ASDs are best represented as a single diagnostic category because they demonstrate similar types of symptoms and are better differentiated by clinical specifiers (i.e., dimensions of severity) and associated features (i.e., known genetic disorders, epilepsy and intellectual disability). An additional change to the DSM includes collapsing social and communication deficits into one domain. Thus, an individual with an ASD diagnosis will be described in terms of severity of social communication symptoms, severity of fixated or restricted behaviors or interests and associated features. The restriction of onset age has also been loosened from 3 years of age to "early developmental period", with a note that symptoms may manifest later when demands exceed capabilities.

Autism forms the core of the autism spectrum disorders. Asperger syndrome is closest to autism in signs and likely causes;[3] unlike autism, people with Asperger syndrome have no significant delay in language development.[4] PDD-NOS is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder. Some sources also include Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder, which share several signs with autism but may have unrelated causes; other sources differentiate them from ASD, but group all of the above conditions into the pervasive developmental disorders.[3][5]

The terminology of autism can be bewildering. Autism, Asperger syndrome, and PDD-NOS are sometimes called the autistic disorders instead of ASD,[6] whereas autism itself is often called autistic disorder, childhood autism, or infantile autism.[7] Although the older term pervasive developmental disorder and the newer term autism spectrum disorder largely or entirely overlap,[5] the former was intended to describe a specific set of diagnostic labels, whereas the latter refers to a postulated spectrum disorder linking various conditions.[8] ASD, in turn, is a subset of the broader autism phenotype (BAP), which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic-like traits, such as avoiding eye contact.[7]


Pathophysiology

In general, neuroanatomical studies support the notion that autism is linked to a combination of brain enlargement in some areas and brain reduction in other areas.[9] These studies suggest that autism may be caused by abnormal neuronal growth and pruning during the early stages of prenatal and postnatal brain development, leaving some areas of the brain with too many neurons and other areas with too few neurons.[10] Some research has reported an overall brain enlargement in autism while others suggest abnormalities in several areas of the brain, including the frontal lobe, the mirror neuron system, the limbic system, the temporal lobe, and the corpus callosum.

In neuroanatomical studies, when performing Theory of Mind and facial emotion response tasks, the median person on the autism spectrum exhibits less activation in the primary and secondary somato-sensory cortices than does the median member of a properly sampled control population. This discrepancy is consistent with reports of abnormal patterns of cortical thickness and grey matter volume in those regions of autistic persons' brains.[11]

Mirror neuron system

Main article: Mirror neuron

The mirror neuron system (MNS) consists of a network of brain areas that have been associated with empathy processes in humans.[12] In humans, the MNS has been identified in the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and the inferior parietal lobule (IPL) and is thought to be activated during imitation or observation of behaviors.[13] It has been proposed that problems with the mirror neuron system may underlie autism;[14][15] however the connection between mirror neuron dysfunction and autism is tentative and it remains to be seen how mirror neurons may be related to many of the important characteristics of autism.[16]

Temporal lobe

Functions of the temporal lobe are related to many of the deficits observed in individuals with ASDs, such as receptive language, social cognition, joint attention, action observation, and empathy. The temporal lobe also contains the superior temporal sulcus (STS) and the fusiform face area (FFA), which may mediate facial processing. It has been argued that dysfunction in the STS underlies the social deficits that characterize autism. Compared to typically developing individuals, one fMRI study found that individuals with high-functioning autism had reduced activity in the FFA when viewing pictures of faces.[17]

Mitochondrial dysfunction

It has been noted that children with ASD are afflicted with undiagnosed comorbid conditions such as abnormalities in the peripheral nervous, immune, gastrointestinal and energy production systems, suggesting that ASD isn't strictly a central nervous system (CNS) disorder, but rather a systemic one.[18] It has been hypothesized that ASD could be linked to a mitochondrial disorder, as it is a basic cellular abnormality that has the potential to cause disturbances in a wide range of body systems.[19] A recent meta-analysis study, as well as other population studies have shown that approximately 5% of children with ASD meet the criteria for classical mitochondrial disease (MD),[20] and that around 7.2 percent of children with ASD present with some variant of mitochondrial dysfunction.[21] It is currently unclear why the mitochondrial dysfunction occurs considering that only 23% of children with both ASD and MD present with mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) abnormalities.[20]

Characteristics

Under DSM-IV-TR, autism was characterized by delays or abnormal functioning before the age of three years in one or more of the following domains: (1) social interaction; (2) communication; and (3) restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities.[22] There is also a unique form of autism called autistic savantism, where a child can actually display outstanding skills in music, art, and numbers with no practice. (National Institute of Health. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. CDC. Alan G Weintraub, MD May 12, 2013)

Asperger syndrome was distinguished from autism by the lack of delay or deviance in early language development.[22] Additionally, individuals with Asperger syndrome did not have significant cognitive delays.[23]

PDD-NOS was considered "subthreshold autism" and "atypical autism" because it was often characterized by milder symptoms of autism or symptoms in only one domain (such as social difficulties).[24]

The theory of monotropism proposes that children on the Autism Spectrum have difficulty shifting their attention out of the individual's attention tunnel.[25]

Developmental course

Although autism spectrum disorders are thought to follow two possible developmental courses, most parents report that symptom onset occurred within the first year of life.[26][27] One course of development follows a gradual course of onset in which parents report concerns in development over the first two years of life and diagnosis is made around 3–4 years of age. Some of the early signs of ASDs in this course include decreased looking at faces, failure to turn when name is called, failure to show interests by showing or pointing, and delayed pretend play.[28] A second course of development is characterized by normal or near-normal development followed by loss of skills or regression in the first 2–3 years. Regression may occur in a variety of domains, including communication, social, cognitive, and self-help skills; however, the most common regression is loss of language.[29][30] There continues to be a debate over the differential outcomes based on these two developmental courses. Some studies suggest that regression is associated with poorer outcomes and others report no differences between those with early gradual onset and those who experience a regression period.[31] Overall, the prognosis is poor for persons with classical (Kanner-type) autism with respect to academic achievement and poor to below-average for persons across the autism spectrum with respect to independent living abilities; in each case, a lack of early intervention exacerbates the odds against success.[31] However, many individuals show improvements as they grow older. The two best predictors of favorable outcome in autism are the absence of intellectual disability and the development of some communicative speech prior to five years of age.[unreliable medical source?][32] Overall, the literature stresses the importance of early intervention in achieving positive longitudinal outcomes.[33]

Causes

Main article: Causes of autism

While a specific cause or specific causes of autism spectrum disorders has yet to be found, many risk factors have been identified in the research literature that may contribute to the development of an ASD. These risk factors include genetics, prenatal and perinatal factors, neuroanatomical abnormalities, and environmental factors. It is possible to identify general risk factors, but much more difficult to pinpoint specific factors. In the current state of knowledge, prediction can only be of a global nature and therefore requires the use of general markers.[34]

Genetic risk factors

The results of family and twin studies suggest that genetic factors play a role in the etiology of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders.[35] Studies have consistently found that the prevalence of autism in siblings of autistic children is approximately 15 to 30 times greater than the rate in the general population.[36] In addition, research suggests that there is a much higher concordance rate among monozygotic twins compared to dizygotic twins.[37] It appears that there is no single gene that can account for autism. Instead, there seem to be multiple genes involved, each of which is a risk factor for part of the autism syndrome through various groups.[38][39][40]

Associated conditions

Prenatal and perinatal risk factors

A number of prenatal and perinatal complications have been reported as possible risk factors for autism. These risk factors include maternal gestational diabetes, maternal and paternal age over 30, bleeding after first trimester, use of prescription medication (e.g. valproate) during pregnancy, and meconium in the amniotic fluid. While research is not conclusive on the relation of these factors to autism, each of these factors has been identified more frequently in autistic children compared to their non-autistic siblings and other normally developing youth.[42]

Vaccine controversy

Main article: MMR vaccine controversy

Perhaps the most controversial claim regarding autism etiology was the "vaccine controversy".[43] This conjecture, arising from a case of scientific misconduct,[44] suggested that autism results from brain damage caused either by (1) the measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) vaccine itself, or by (2) thimerosal, a vaccine preservative.[45] No convincing scientific evidence supports these claims, based on various lines of evidence including the observation that the rate of autism continues to climb despite elimination of thimerosal from routine childhood vaccines.[46] In 2014 Professor Guy Eslick, an epidemiologist, did a study to help disprove the theories on vaccines causing autism. The vaccine meta analysis examined 10 major studies on autism and vaccines from around the world that involved 1.25 million children and assessed the odds that children would develop autism after vaccination. Professor Eslick stated, “Most of the studies were right on one, there was just no relationship between vaccination and autism. I hope this study goes some way to closing the doors on the connection between vaccination and autism and I want people to vaccinate their children.” [47]

Risk Factors

Environmental

A variety of nonspecific risk factors, such as advanced parental age, lowbirth weight, or fetal exposure to valproate, may contribute to risk of aufism spectrum disorder.

Genetic and physiological

Heritability estimates for autism spectrum disorder haveranged from 37°/^ to higher than 90%, based on twin concordance rates. Currently, as manyas 15% of cases of autism spectrum disorder appear to be associated with a known geneticmutation, with different de novo copy number variants or de novo mutations in specificgenes associated with the disorder in different families. However, even when an autismspectrum disorder is associated with a known genetic mutation, it does not appear to befully penetrant. Risk for the remainder of cases appears to be polygenic, with perhaps hundredsof genetic loci making relatively small contributions.

Culture-Related Diagnostic Issues

Cultural differences will exist in norms for social interaction, nonverbal communication,and relationships, but individuals with autism spectrum disorder are markedly impairedagainst the norms for their cultural context. Cultural and socioeconomic factors may affect age at recognition or diagnosis; for example, in the United States, late or underdiagnosis ofautism spectrum disorder among African American children may occur.

Gender-Related Diagnostic Issues

Autism spectrum disorder is diagnosed four times more often in males than in females. Inclinic samples, females tend to be more likely to show accompanying intellectual disability, suggesting that girls without accompanying intellectual impairments or languagedelays may go unrecognized, perhaps because of subtler manifestation of social and communication difficulties.


Diagnosis

Evidence-based assessment

ASD can be detected as early as eighteen months or even younger in some cases.[48] A reliable diagnosis can usually be made by the age of two.[49] The diverse expressions of ASD symptoms pose diagnostic challenges to clinicians. Individuals with an ASD may present at various times of development (e.g., toddler, child, or adolescent) and symptom expression may vary over the course of development.[50] Furthermore, clinicians are required to differentiate among the different pervasive developmental disorders as well as other disorders such as mental retardation not associated with a pervasive developmental disorder, specific developmental disorders (e.g. language), and early onset schizophrenia,[citation needed] as well as the social-cognitive deficits caused by brain damage from alcohol abuse.[51]

Considering the unique challenges associated with diagnosing ASD, specific practice parameters for the assessment of ASD have been published by the American Academy of Neurology,[52] the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,[50] and a consensus panel with representation from various professional societies.[53] The practice parameters outlined by these societies include an initial screening of children by general practitioners (i.e., "Level 1 screening") and for children who fail the initial screening, a comprehensive diagnostic assessment by experienced clinicians (i.e. "Level 2 evaluation"). Furthermore, it has been suggested that assessments of children with suspected ASD be evaluated within a developmental framework, include multiple informants (e.g., parents and teachers) from diverse contexts (e.g., home and school), and employ a multidisciplinary team of professionals (e.g., clinical psychologists, neuropsychologists, and psychiatrists).[54]

After a child fails an initial screening, psychologists administer various psychological assessment tools to assess for ASD.[54] Amongst these measurements, the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) are considered the "gold standards" for assessing autistic children.[55][56] The ADI-R is a semi-structured parent interview that probes for symptoms of autism by evaluating a child's current behavior and developmental history. The ADOS is a semistructured interactive evaluation of ASD symptoms that is used to measure social and communication abilities by eliciting a number of opportunities (or "presses") for spontaneous behaviors (e.g., eye contact) in standardized context. Various other questionnaires (e.g., The Childhood Autism Rating Scale) and tests of cognitive functioning (e.g., The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test) are typically included in an ASD assessment battery.


There has been no current medical testing, such as blood work or brain scan, to diagnose autism (Gale Encyclopedia of Genetic Disorder), but there is some developmental screening that should be done during regular well-child doctor visits. These screenings should be done at every visit starting at nine months to twenty-four or thirty months and continue in children at high risk for developmental problems due to preterm birth, low birth weight, or other reasons (CDC).

According to the Gale Encyclopedia of Mental Health, Nursing and Allied Health, Genetic Disorders, (CDC) the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and WebMD there are three main developmental markers that are directly affected by (ASD) autism Spectrum disorder. The severity of the impairments varies individually, but the same markers are always considered. The three developmental areas that are affected in someone that has (ASD) are their social interactions and relationships, verbal and nonverbal communication skills, and behavioral issues and there are also a few other aspects other than developmental that are affected in people with (ASD) autism spectrum disorder, such as sensory problems.

One of the markers mentioned above used to help diagnose autism spectrum disorder is social interactions and relationships. This developmental marker is basically how someone can connect with others (Gale Encyclopedia of Nursing and Allied Health). In infants, (ASD) autism spectrum disorder is first demonstrated in social interactions and relationships when the infant fails to maintain eye contact, or seems uncomfortable when being picked up or held. They may cry, or become limp or tense. They may also seem to have no bond with parents or caregivers. (ASD) prevents them from having the ability to pick up on social cues. This lack can sometimes cause uncontrolled emotional outbursts. It will affect their relationships with others their own ages and they may not be able to express themselves appropriately (WebMD). Autism spectrum disorder also has an effect on the sense of empathy and this lack can challenge the full understanding of someone else’s emotions, such as pain and sorrow (WebMD).

According to Gale Encyclopedia of Nursing and Allied Health, and the Gale Encyclopedia of Genetic Disorder, and also by WebMD is that verbal and non-verbal communication varies on an individual basis, and is one of the first warning signs of this disorder. Warning signs listed by WebMD are your child does not babble or coo by twelve months, does not gesture, such as point or wave by twelve months, does not say single words by sixteen months, does not say two-word phrases on his or her own, and does not make a facial expressions or respond to your facial expression. Common signs are different in each case. Some children may not speak at all, can only use two words at a time, or they can have a large range of words but cannot hold a full conversation (Gale Encyclopedia of Nursing and Allied Health). According to Gale Encyclopedia of Genetic Disorders, another aspect that has appeared in children is the constant repeating of meaningless words or phrases.

One of the other developmental markers highlighted in the detection of (ASD) are behavioral issues. In children, detecting autism, can manifest itself in the unique ways they play with toys and other objects, such as repetitive lining of the toy in certain ways (WebMD). They also need to have strict routine and constant familiarity, and are very resistant to change. They have continuous body movements or patterns of behavior, such as hand flapping, spinning, or body rocking (WebMD) and other characteristics, such as temper tantrums or screaming fits, hyperactivity, and inappropriate laughing or giggling, are shown (Gale Encyclopedia of Genetic Disorders). One of the other behavioral issues is the fixation or obsessive interest in an activity, idea, or person (Gale Encyclopedia of Genetic Disorders).

Even though there are three major components that are affected by (ASD) autism spectrum disorder, there are other symptoms that factor in as well, such as sensory issues. A large percentage of children seem overwhelmed by these senses and react badly to certain sounds by sometimes banging their heads and obsessing with how objects feel under their fingers.

There is no cure for this disorder at this time, but early detection, intensive therapy, and knowledge are the best forms of treatments. Medication can be helpful, also. One form of therapy is behavioral training and management where positive reinforcement, self-help, and social skills training are used to improve behavioral and communication skills (WebMD) and other treatments, such as speech therapy can be used to develop and improve language skills. Occupational therapy can help develop motor skills and teaches self-help and functional skills like grooming. There are many other therapies that can be used to manage the symptoms of (ASD) autism spectrum disorder such as applied behavioral analysis, auditory integration training, dietary interventions, music therapy, physical therapy, sensory integration, and vision therapy(Gale Encyclopedia of Nursing and allied Health). No medication has been developed that will cure (ASD) autism spectrum disorder, but they have found some drugs have an effect on the symptoms (CDC). These medications are used to treat things like anxiety, depression, hyperactivity, anger and aggression. Ritalin, Luvox, ReVia, Methylphenidate, and lithium are types of remedies (Gale Encyclopedia of Mental Health). Treatment, whether it’s therapy or medication must be consistent and with family support (Gale Encyclopedia of Nursing and Allied Health).The knowledge of the symptoms of (ASD) is key to the effectiveness of home treatment (WebMD). Families must educate themselves as well as stay in constant communication with others that are involved in the care of the child (WebMD). According to Gale Encyclopedia of Mental health the most popular alternative treatment is megavitamin therapy because some studies have shown that Vitamin B6 with Magnesium can improve eye contact and speech, and lessen tantrums behavior.

Comorbidity

Main article: Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders

Autism spectrum disorders tend to be highly comorbid with other disorders. Comorbidity may increase with age and may worsen the course of youth with ASDs and make intervention/treatment more difficult. Distinguishing between ASDs and other diagnoses can be challenging because the traits of ASDs often overlap with symptoms of other disorders and the characteristics of ASDs make traditional diagnostic procedures difficult.[57][58]

The most common medical condition occurring in individuals with autism spectrum disorders is seizure disorder or epilepsy, which occurs in 11-39% of individuals with ASD.[59] Tuberous sclerosis, a medical condition in which non-malignant tumors grow in the brain and on other vital organs, occurs in 1-4% of individuals with ASDs.[60]

Intellectual disabilities are some of the most common comorbid disorders with ASDs. Recent estimates suggest that 40-69% of individuals with ASD have some degree of mental retardation,[31] with females more likely to be in severe range of mental retardation. Learning disabilities are also highly comorbid in individuals with an ASD. Approximately 25-75% of individuals with an ASD also have some degree of learning disability.[41]

A variety of anxiety disorders tend to co-occur with autism spectrum disorders, with overall comorbidity rates of 7-84%.[31] Rates of comorbid depression in individuals with an ASD range from 4–58%.[61]

Deficits in ASD are often linked to behavior problems, such as difficulties following directions, being cooperative, and doing things on other people's terms.[62] Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)-like symptoms are seen to be part of the ASD diagnosis.[63]

Sensory processing disorder is also comorbid with ASD, with comorbidity rates of 42-88%.[64]

Management

Main article: Autism therapies

The main goals of treatment are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs. Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills. Available approaches include applied behavior analysis (ABA), developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy.[65] There has been increasing attention to the development of evidenced-based interventions for young children with ASDs. Unresearched alternative therapies have also been implemented (for example, vitamin therapy and acupuncture). Although evidenced-based interventions for autistic children vary in their methods, many adopt a psychoeducational approach to enhancing cognitive, communication and social skills while minimizing problem behaviors. It has been argued that no single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs.[65]

One of the most empirically supported intervention approaches is applied behavioral analysis, particularly in regard to early intensive home-based therapy. Although ABA therapy has a strong research base, other studies have found that this approach may be limited by diagnostic severity and IQ.[66]

Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention (EIBI), through the use of Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA), has been researched for over 40 years in its effectiveness. Most EIBI programs recognize that all skills appropriate for each specific age are teachable and should be taught. General curriculum areas that are addressed are language, social skills, play skills, motor skills, pre-academic and academic skills, and independent living skills. ABA models of intervention for preschool age include two main approaches to teaching. "Discrete Trial Teaching" or DTT, includes multiple discrete opportunities that are presented across the day or session. A discrete trial consists of the therapist presenting an instruction, the child responding, and the therapist responding to that by presenting a consequence. If the child responds incorrectly, the reinforcer is not given and the therapist will follow up with an error correction procedure, followed by another trial. A strength of this way of teaching is the child receives a large number of trials in a short time, allowing for a large amount of learning opportunities. A potential weakness may be that the skills learned in this structured setting are not easily generalized in less strict settings. "Natural Environment Teaching" consists of maximizing naturally occurring learning opportunities. It involves a more child-directed format that allows for the child to initiate learning, and the therapist to recognize this and follow it by prompting the child for a desired behavior before giving the reinforcer.[67] Although (ASD) autism spectrum disorder is lifelong, it can be treated. A family with a child that suffers this ailment must know and understand the aspects of it, as well as being consistent with the treatment plan. A key point is to learn how to handle the normal range of emotions that comes from raising a child with this disorder (WebMD) and another facet that a family should consider is finding a support group for both the child as well as themselves. According to WebMD there are many places to get help for either the family or to find treatment plans for the child. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke which is the leading U.S. federal government agency supporting research on brain and nervous system disorders is one such organization. It provides the public with educational materials and information about these disorders. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is another agency whose aim is to find the cause of and prevent birth defects and developmental disabilities. This group works to help people of all ages with the disabilities live to the fullest.

Epidemiology

Main article: Epidemiology of autism

Reviews tend to estimate a prevalence of 6 per 1,000 for autism spectrum disorders as a whole,[68] however prevalence rates vary for each of the developmental disorders in the spectrum. Autism prevalence has been estimated at 1-2 per 1,000, Asperger syndrome at roughly 0.6 per 1,000, childhood disintegrative disorder at 0.02 per 1,000, and PDD-NOS at 3.7 per 1,000.[68] These rates are consistent across cultures and ethnic groups, as autism is considered a universal disorder.[31]

While rates of autism spectrum disorders are consistent across cultures, they vary greatly by gender, with boys being affected far more frequently than girls. The average male-to-female ratio for ASDs is 4.2:1,[69] affecting 1 in 70 males, but only 1 in 315 females.[70] Females, however, are more likely to have associated cognitive impairment. Among those with an ASD and intellectual disability, the sex ratio may be closer to 2:1.[71] Prevalence differences might be accounted by gender differences in the expression of clinical symptoms, with females showing less atypical behaviors and, therefore, less likely to receive an ASD diagnosis.[72]

History

Template:Further2

Controversies have surrounded various claims regarding the etiology of autism spectrum disorders. In the 1950s, the "refrigerator mother theory" emerged as an explanation for autism. The hypothesis was based on the idea that autistic behaviors stem from the emotional frigidity, lack of warmth, and cold, distant, rejecting demeanor of a child's mother.[73] Naturally, parents of children with an autism spectrum disorder suffered from blame, guilt, and self-doubt, especially as the theory was embraced by the medical establishment and went largely unchallenged into the mid-1960s. While the "refrigerator mother theory" has been rejected in the research literature, its effects have lingered into the 21st century. Another controversial claim suggests that watching extensive amounts of television may cause autism. This hypothesis was largely based on research suggesting that the increasing rates of autism in the 1970s and 1980s were linked to the growth of cable television at this time.[46] This conjecture has not been supported in the research literature.[citation needed]

Schools

There are a number of schools for students on the autism spectrum.

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Autism spectrum disorder fact sheet" (PDF). DSM5.org. American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013. Retrieved October 13, 2103. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  2. ↑ "Home | APA DSM-5". Dsm5.org. Retrieved 2012-02-21.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Lord C, Cook EH, Leventhal BL, Amaral DG. Autism spectrum disorders. Neuron. 2000;28(2):355–63. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(00)00115-X. PMID 11144346.
  4. ↑ American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed., text revision (DSM-IV-TR). 2000. ISBN 0890420254. Diagnostic criteria for 299.80 Asperger's Disorder (AD).
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 National Institute of Mental Health. Autism spectrum disorders (pervasive developmental disorders); 2009 [Retrieved 2009-04-23].
  6. ↑ Freitag CM. The genetics of autistic disorders and its clinical relevance: a review of the literature. Mol Psychiatry. 2007;12(1):2–22. doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4001896. PMID 17033636.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Piven J, Palmer P, Jacobi D, Childress D, Arndt S. Broader autism phenotype: evidence from a family history study of multiple-incidence autism families [PDF]. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154(2):185–90. PMID 9016266.
  8. ↑ Klin A. Autism and Asperger syndrome: an overview. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2006;28(suppl 1):S3–S11. doi:10.1590/S1516-44462006000500002. PMID 16791390.
  9. ↑ Koenig, Kathleen; Tsatsanis, Katherine D.; Volkmar, Fred R. (2001). Jacob A Burack, Tony Charman, Nurit Yirmiya, Philip R. Zelazo, eds. Neurobiology and Genetics ofd Autism : A Developmental Perspective. The development of autism : perspectives from theory and research. Mahwah, N.J.: L. Erlbaum,. pp. 73–92. ISBN 9780805832457. OCLC 806185029. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  10. ↑ Minshew, NJ (1996). "Brief report: Brain mechanisms in autism: Functional and structural abnormalities". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 26 (2): 205–209. doi:10.1007/BF02172013. PMID 8744486.
  11. ↑ Sugranyes G, Kyriakopoulos M, Corrigall R, Taylor E, Frangou S (2011). "Autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia: meta-analysis of the neural correlates of social cognition". PLoS ONE. 6 (10): e25322. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025322. PMC 3187762. PMID 21998649.
  12. ↑ Fadiga, L. (2005). "Human motor cortex excitability during the perception of others' action". Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 15 (2): 213–218. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2005.03.013. PMID 15831405. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  13. ↑ Shamay-Tsoory, S.G. (2011). "The Neural Bases for Empathy". The Neuroscientist. 17 (1): 18–24. doi:10.1177/1073858410379268. PMID 21071616.
  14. ↑ Nishitani, N. (2004). "Abnormal imitation-related cortical activation sequences in Asperger's syndrome". Annals of Neurology. 55 (4): 558–562. doi:10.1002/ana.20031. PMID 15048895. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)
  15. ↑ Dapretto, M.; Davies M.S.; et al. (2006). "Understanding emotions in others: mirror neuron dysfunction in children with autism spectrum disorders". Nature Neuroscience. 9 (1): 28–30. doi:10.1038/nn1611. PMC 3713227. PMID 16327784. Unknown parameter |author-separator= ignored (help)
  16. ↑ Dinstein I, Thomas C, Behrmann M, Heeger DJ (2008). "A mirror up to nature". Curr Biol. 18 (1): R13–8. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.004. PMC 2517574. PMID 18177704.
  17. ↑ Schultz, R. (2005). "Developmental deficits in social perception in autism: The role of amygdala and fusiform face area". International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience. 23 (2–3): 125–141. doi:10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2004.12.012. PMID 15749240.
  18. ↑ Xue Ming, Brimacombe M, Chaaban J, Zimmerman-Bier B, Wagner GC (2008). "Autism spectrum disorders: concurrent clinical disorders". J Child Neurol. 23 (1): 6–13. doi:10.1177/0883073807307102. PMID 18056691.
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  55. ↑ Corsello C, Hus V, Pickles A; et al. (September 2007). "Between a ROC and a hard place: decision making and making decisions about using the SCQ". J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 48 (9): 932–40. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01762.x. PMID 17714378.
  56. ↑ Huerta M, Lord C (February 2012). "Diagnostic evaluation of autism spectrum disorders". Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 59 (1): 103–11, xi. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2011.10.018. PMC 3269006. PMID 22284796.
  57. ↑ Helverschou,, S.B.; Bakken, T.L.; Martinsen., H. (2011). Johnny L Matson; Peter Sturmey, eds. Psychiatric Disorders in People with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Phenomenology and Recognition. International handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders. New York: Springer,. pp. 53–74. ISBN 9781441980649. OCLC 746203105. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
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