ACAD9: Difference between revisions

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{{Infobox_gene}}
{{Infobox_gene}}
'''Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase family member 9, mitochondrial''' is an [[enzyme]] that in [[human]]s is encoded by the ''ACAD9'' [[gene]].<ref name="pmid12359260">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang J, Zhang W, Zou D, Chen G, Wan T, Zhang M, Cao X | title = Cloning and functional characterization of ACAD-9, a novel member of human acyl-CoA dehydrogenase family | journal = Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications | volume = 297 | issue = 4 | pages = 1033–42 | date = Oct 2002 | pmid = 12359260 | pmc =  | doi = 10.1016/S0006-291X(02)02336-7 }}</ref><ref name="entrez">{{cite web | title = Entrez Gene: ACAD9 acyl-Coenzyme A dehydrogenase family, member 9| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=28976| accessdate = }}</ref>
'''Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase family member 9, mitochondrial''' is an [[enzyme]] that in [[human]]s is encoded by the ''ACAD9'' [[gene]].<ref name="pmid12359260">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang J, Zhang W, Zou D, Chen G, Wan T, Zhang M, Cao X | title = Cloning and functional characterization of ACAD-9, a novel member of human acyl-CoA dehydrogenase family | journal = Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications | volume = 297 | issue = 4 | pages = 1033–42 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12359260 | pmc =  | doi = 10.1016/S0006-291X(02)02336-7 }}</ref><ref name="entrez">{{cite web | title = Entrez Gene: ACAD9 acyl-Coenzyme A dehydrogenase family, member 9| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=28976| access-date = }}</ref> Mitochondrial Complex I Deficiency with varying clinical manifestations has been associated with mutations in ''ACAD9''.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Leslie N, Wang X, Peng Y, Valencia CA, Khuchua Z, Hata J, Witte D, Huang T, Bove KE | title = Neonatal multiorgan failure due to ACAD9 mutation and complex I deficiency with mitochondrial hyperplasia in liver, cardiac myocytes, skeletal muscle, and renal tubules | journal = Human Pathology | volume = 49 | pages = 27–32 | date = March 2016 | pmid = 26826406 | doi = 10.1016/j.humpath.2015.09.039 }}</ref>


== Structure ==
== Structure ==
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== Function ==
== Function ==


The ACAD9 enzyme catalyzes a crucial step in fatty acid beta-oxidation by forming a C2-C3 trans-double bond in the fatty acid. LVCAD is specific to very long-chain fatty acids, typically C16-acylCoA and longer.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aoyama T, Souri M, Ushikubo S, Kamijo T, Yamaguchi S, Kelley RI, Rhead WJ, Uetake K, Tanaka K, Hashimoto T | title = Purification of human very-long-chain acyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase and characterization of its deficiency in seven patients | journal = The Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 95 | issue = 6 | pages = 2465–73 | date = Jun 1995 | pmid = 7769092 | doi = 10.1172/JCI117947 | pmc=295925}}</ref> It has been observed that ACAD9 can catalyze acyl-CoAs with very long chains. The specific activity of ACAD9 towards palmitoyl-CoA (C16:0) is three times higher than that towards stearoyl-CoA (C18:0). ACAD-9 has little activity on n-octanoyl-CoA (C8:0), n-butyryl-CoA (C4:0) or isovaleryl-CoA (C5:0).<ref name="pmid12359260" />
The ACAD9 enzyme catalyzes a crucial step in [[fatty acid]] [[Beta oxidation|beta-oxidation]] by forming a C2-C3 trans-double bond in the fatty acid. LVCAD is specific to very long-chain fatty acids, typically C16-acylCoA and longer.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aoyama T, Souri M, Ushikubo S, Kamijo T, Yamaguchi S, Kelley RI, Rhead WJ, Uetake K, Tanaka K, Hashimoto T | title = Purification of human very-long-chain acyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase and characterization of its deficiency in seven patients | journal = The Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 95 | issue = 6 | pages = 2465–73 | date = June 1995 | pmid = 7769092 | pmc = 295925 | doi = 10.1172/JCI117947 }}</ref> It has been observed that ACAD9 can catalyze acyl-CoAs with very long chains. The specific activity of ACAD9 towards [[palmitoyl-CoA]] (C16:0) is three times higher than that towards [[stearoyl-CoA]] (C18:0). ACAD-9 has little activity on n-octanoyl-CoA (C8:0), n-butyryl-CoA (C4:0) or [[isovaleryl-CoA]] (C5:0).<ref name="pmid12359260" />


In contrast with ACADVL, ACAD9 is also involved in assembly of the [[oxidative phosphorylation]] complex I. ACAD9 binds complex I assembly factors [[NDUFAF1]] and [[Ecsit]] and is specifically required for the assembly of complex I. Furthermore, ACAD9 mutations result in complex I deficiency and not in disturbed long-chain fatty acid oxidation.<ref name="Nouws J 2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nouws J, Nijtmans L, Houten SM, van den Brand M, Huynen M, Venselaar H, Hoefs S, Gloerich J, Kronick J, Hutchin T, Willems P, Rodenburg R, Wanders R, van den Heuvel L, Smeitink J, Vogel RO | title = Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase 9 is required for the biogenesis of oxidative phosphorylation complex I | journal = Cell Metabolism | volume = 12 | issue = 3 | pages = 283–94 | date = Sep 2010 | pmid = 20816094 | doi = 10.1016/j.cmet.2010.08.002 }}</ref>
In contrast with ACADVL, ACAD9 is also involved in assembly of the [[oxidative phosphorylation]] complex I. ACAD9 binds complex I assembly factors [[NDUFAF1]] and [[Ecsit]] and is specifically required for the assembly of complex I. Furthermore, ACAD9 mutations result in complex I deficiency and not in disturbed long-chain fatty acid oxidation.<ref name="Nouws J 2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nouws J, Nijtmans L, Houten SM, van den Brand M, Huynen M, Venselaar H, Hoefs S, Gloerich J, Kronick J, Hutchin T, Willems P, Rodenburg R, Wanders R, van den Heuvel L, Smeitink J, Vogel RO | title = Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase 9 is required for the biogenesis of oxidative phosphorylation complex I | journal = Cell Metabolism | volume = 12 | issue = 3 | pages = 283–94 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 20816094 | doi = 10.1016/j.cmet.2010.08.002 }}</ref>


== Clinical significance ==
== Clinical significance ==


Mutations in the ACAD9 gene are associated with Mitochondrial Complex I Deficiency, which is autosomal recessive. This deficiency is the most common enzymatic defect of the oxidative phosphorylation disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kirby DM, Salemi R, Sugiana C, Ohtake A, Parry L, Bell KM, Kirk EP, Boneh A, Taylor RW, Dahl HH, Ryan MT, Thorburn DR | title = NDUFS6 mutations are a novel cause of lethal neonatal mitochondrial complex I deficiency | journal = The Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 114 | issue = 6 | pages = 837–45 | date = Sep 2004 | pmid = 15372108 | doi = 10.1172/JCI20683 | pmc=516258}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McFarland R, Kirby DM, Fowler KJ, Ohtake A, Ryan MT, Amor DJ, Fletcher JM, Dixon JW, Collins FA, Turnbull DM, Taylor RW, Thorburn DR | title = De novo mutations in the mitochondrial ND3 gene as a cause of infantile mitochondrial encephalopathy and complex I deficiency | journal = Annals of Neurology | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | pages = 58–64 | date = Jan 2004 | pmid = 14705112 | doi = 10.1002/ana.10787 }}</ref> Mitochondrial complex I deficiency shows extreme genetic heterogeneity and can be caused by mutation in nuclear-encoded genes or in mitochondrial-encoded genes. There are no obvious genotype-phenotype correlations, and inference of the underlying basis from the clinical or biochemical presentation is difficult, if not impossible.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Haack TB, Haberberger B, Frisch EM, Wieland T, Iuso A, Gorza M, Strecker V, Graf E, Mayr JA, Herberg U, Hennermann JB, Klopstock T, Kuhn KA, Ahting U, Sperl W, Wilichowski E, Hoffmann GF, Tesarova M, Hansikova H, Zeman J, Plecko B, Zeviani M, Wittig I, Strom TM, Schuelke M, Freisinger P, Meitinger T, Prokisch H | title = Molecular diagnosis in mitochondrial complex I deficiency using exome sequencing | journal = Journal of Medical Genetics | volume = 49 | issue = 4 | pages = 277–83 | date = Apr 2012 | pmid = 22499348 | doi = 10.1136/jmedgenet-2012-100846 }}</ref> However, the majority of cases are caused by mutations in nuclear-encoded genes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Loeffen JL, Smeitink JA, Trijbels JM, Janssen AJ, Triepels RH, Sengers RC, van den Heuvel LP | title = Isolated complex I deficiency in children: clinical, biochemical and genetic aspects | journal = Human Mutation | volume = 15 | issue = 2 | pages = 123–34 | date = 2000 | pmid = 10649489 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1098-1004(200002)15:2<123::AID-HUMU1>3.0.CO;2-P }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Triepels RH, Van Den Heuvel LP, Trijbels JM, Smeitink JA | title = Respiratory chain complex I deficiency | journal = American Journal of Medical Genetics | volume = 106 | issue = 1 | pages = 37–45 | date = 2001 | pmid = 11579423 | doi = 10.1002/ajmg.1397 }}</ref> It causes a wide range of clinical disorders, ranging from lethal neonatal disease to adult-onset neurodegenerative disorders. Phenotypes include macrocephaly with progressive leukodystrophy, nonspecific encephalopathy, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, myopathy, liver disease, Leigh syndrome, Leber hereditary optic neuropathy, and some forms of Parkinson disease.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Robinson BH | title = Human complex I deficiency: clinical spectrum and involvement of oxygen free radicals in the pathogenicity of the defect | journal = Biochimica et Biophysica Acta | volume = 1364 | issue = 2 | pages = 271–86 | date = May 1998 | pmid = 9593934 | doi=10.1016/s0005-2728(98)00033-4}}</ref>
Mutations in the ACAD9 gene are associated with Mitochondrial Complex I Deficiency, which is [[Autosomal Recessive|autosomal recessive]]. This deficiency is the most common enzymatic defect of the oxidative phosphorylation disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kirby DM, Salemi R, Sugiana C, Ohtake A, Parry L, Bell KM, Kirk EP, Boneh A, Taylor RW, Dahl HH, Ryan MT, Thorburn DR | title = NDUFS6 mutations are a novel cause of lethal neonatal mitochondrial complex I deficiency | journal = The Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 114 | issue = 6 | pages = 837–45 | date = September 2004 | pmid = 15372108 | pmc = 516258 | doi = 10.1172/JCI20683 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McFarland R, Kirby DM, Fowler KJ, Ohtake A, Ryan MT, Amor DJ, Fletcher JM, Dixon JW, Collins FA, Turnbull DM, Taylor RW, Thorburn DR | title = De novo mutations in the mitochondrial ND3 gene as a cause of infantile mitochondrial encephalopathy and complex I deficiency | journal = Annals of Neurology | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | pages = 58–64 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14705112 | doi = 10.1002/ana.10787 }}</ref> Mitochondrial complex I deficiency shows extreme genetic heterogeneity and can be caused by mutation in nuclear-encoded genes or in mitochondrial-encoded genes. There are no obvious [[genotype]]-[[phenotype]] correlations, and inference of the underlying basis from the clinical or biochemical presentation is difficult, if not impossible.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Haack TB, Haberberger B, Frisch EM, Wieland T, Iuso A, Gorza M, Strecker V, Graf E, Mayr JA, Herberg U, Hennermann JB, Klopstock T, Kuhn KA, Ahting U, Sperl W, Wilichowski E, Hoffmann GF, Tesarova M, Hansikova H, Zeman J, Plecko B, Zeviani M, Wittig I, Strom TM, Schuelke M, Freisinger P, Meitinger T, Prokisch H | title = Molecular diagnosis in mitochondrial complex I deficiency using exome sequencing | journal = Journal of Medical Genetics | volume = 49 | issue = 4 | pages = 277–83 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22499348 | doi = 10.1136/jmedgenet-2012-100846 }}</ref> However, the majority of cases are caused by mutations in nuclear-encoded genes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Loeffen JL, Smeitink JA, Trijbels JM, Janssen AJ, Triepels RH, Sengers RC, van den Heuvel LP | title = Isolated complex I deficiency in children: clinical, biochemical and genetic aspects | journal = Human Mutation | volume = 15 | issue = 2 | pages = 123–34 | date = 2000 | pmid = 10649489 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1098-1004(200002)15:2<123::AID-HUMU1>3.0.CO;2-P }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Triepels RH, Van Den Heuvel LP, Trijbels JM, Smeitink JA | title = Respiratory chain complex I deficiency | journal = American Journal of Medical Genetics | volume = 106 | issue = 1 | pages = 37–45 | date = 2001 | pmid = 11579423 | doi = 10.1002/ajmg.1397 }}</ref> It causes a wide range of clinical disorders, ranging from lethal neonatal disease to adult-onset [[neurodegenerative disorders]]. Phenotypes include [[macrocephaly]] with progressive [[leukodystrophy]], nonspecific [[encephalopathy]], [[hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]], [[myopathy]], [[liver disease]], [[Leigh syndrome]], [[Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy|Leber hereditary optic neuropathy]], and some forms of [[Parkinson's disease|Parkinson disease]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Robinson BH | title = Human complex I deficiency: clinical spectrum and involvement of oxygen free radicals in the pathogenicity of the defect | journal = Biochimica et Biophysica Acta | volume = 1364 | issue = 2 | pages = 271–86 | date = May 1998 | pmid = 9593934 | doi = 10.1016/s0005-2728(98)00033-4 }}</ref>


A few cases specific to ACAD9 have been reported. Some cases presented with episodic liver dysfunction during otherwise mild illnesses or cardiomyopathy, along with chronic neurologic dysfunction. Brain findings were notable for generalized edema with diffuse ventricular compression, acute left tonsillar herniation, and diffuse multifocal acute damage in the hippocampus. In addition, some abnormalities consistent with nonacute changes were seen, including a subacute right cerebellar hemispheric infarct and reduction in the number of neurons in several areas.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = He M, Rutledge SL, Kelly DR, Palmer CA, Murdoch G, Majumder N, Nicholls RD, Pei Z, Watkins PA, Vockley J | title = A new genetic disorder in mitochondrial fatty acid beta-oxidation: ACAD9 deficiency | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 81 | issue = 1 | pages = 87–103 | date = Jul 2007 | pmid = 17564966 | doi = 10.1086/519219 | pmc=1950923}}</ref> In one patient, whose clinical manifestations of hypotonia, cardiomyopathy, and lactic acidosis, a vigorous treatment with [[riboflavin]] allowed the individual to have normal psychomotor development and no cognitive impairment at 5 years of age.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Haack TB, Danhauser K, Haberberger B, Hoser J, Strecker V, Boehm D, Uziel G, Lamantea E, Invernizzi F, Poulton J, Rolinski B, Iuso A, Biskup S, Schmidt T, Mewes HW, Wittig I, Meitinger T, Zeviani M, Prokisch H | title = Exome sequencing identifies ACAD9 mutations as a cause of complex I deficiency | journal = Nature Genetics | volume = 42 | issue = 12 | pages = 1131–4 | date = Dec 2010 | pmid = 21057504 | doi = 10.1038/ng.706 }}</ref>
A few cases specific to ACAD9 have been reported. Some cases presented with episodic liver dysfunction during otherwise mild illnesses or cardiomyopathy, along with chronic neurologic dysfunction. Brain findings were notable for generalized [[edema]] with diffuse ventricular compression, acute left [[tonsillar herniation]], and diffuse multifocal acute damage in the [[hippocampus]]. In addition, some abnormalities consistent with nonacute changes were seen, including a subacute right [[Cerebellum|cerebellar]] hemispheric infarct and reduction in the number of [[Neuron|neurons]] in several areas.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = He M, Rutledge SL, Kelly DR, Palmer CA, Murdoch G, Majumder N, Nicholls RD, Pei Z, Watkins PA, Vockley J | title = A new genetic disorder in mitochondrial fatty acid beta-oxidation: ACAD9 deficiency | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 81 | issue = 1 | pages = 87–103 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 17564966 | pmc = 1950923 | doi = 10.1086/519219 }}</ref> In one patient, whose clinical manifestations of [[hypotonia]], cardiomyopathy, and [[lactic acidosis]], a vigorous treatment with [[riboflavin]] allowed the individual to have normal psychomotor development and no cognitive impairment at 5 years of age.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Haack TB, Danhauser K, Haberberger B, Hoser J, Strecker V, Boehm D, Uziel G, Lamantea E, Invernizzi F, Poulton J, Rolinski B, Iuso A, Biskup S, Schmidt T, Mewes HW, Wittig I, Meitinger T, Zeviani M, Prokisch H | title = Exome sequencing identifies ACAD9 mutations as a cause of complex I deficiency | journal = Nature Genetics | volume = 42 | issue = 12 | pages = 1131–4 | date = December 2010 | pmid = 21057504 | doi = 10.1038/ng.706 }}</ref> Exercise-induced [[rhabdomyolysis]], mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, and [[hyperplasia]] in liver, [[Cardiac muscle cell|cardiac myocytes]], [[skeletal muscle]], and [[Nephron|renal tubules]] have also been observed in patients with ''ACAD9'' mutations.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Garone C, Donati MA, Sacchini M, Garcia-Diaz B, Bruno C, Calvo S, Mootha VK, Dimauro S | title = Mitochondrial encephalomyopathy due to a novel mutation in ACAD9 | journal = JAMA Neurology | volume = 70 | issue = 9 | pages = 1177–9 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 23836383 | pmc = 3891824 | doi = 10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.3197 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Daniel R, Singh M, O'Rourke K | title = Another "Complex" Case: Complex I Deficiency Secondary to Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase 9 Mutation | journal = The American Journal of the Medical Sciences | volume = 350 | issue = 5 | pages = 423–4 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 26445304 | doi = 10.1097/MAJ.0000000000000570 }}</ref><ref name=":0" />


== Interactions ==
== Interactions ==


ACAD9 is part of the mitochondrial complex I assembly (MCIA) complex. The complex comprises at least TMEM126B, NDUFAF1, ECSIT, and ACAD9, which interacts directly with NDUFAF1 and ECSIT.<ref name="Nouws J 2010"/>
ACAD9 is part of the mitochondrial complex I assembly (MCIA) complex. The complex comprises at least [[TMEM126B]], [[NDUFAF1]], [[ECSIT]], and ACAD9, which interacts directly with NDUFAF1 and ECSIT.<ref name="Nouws J 2010"/>


== References ==
== References ==
{{reflist|33em}}
{{reflist|33em}}


==External links==
== External links ==
* {{UCSC gene info|ACAD9}}
* {{UCSC gene info|ACAD9}}


== Further reading ==
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|33em}}
{{refbegin|33em}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Fragaki K, Chaussenot A, Boutron A, Bannwarth S, Cochaud C, Richelme C, Sacconi S, Paquis-Flucklinger V | title = Severe defect in mitochondrial complex I assembly with mitochondrial DNA deletions in ACAD9-deficient mild myopathy | journal = Muscle & Nerve | volume = 55 | issue = 6 | pages = 919–922 | date = June 2017 | pmid = 27438479 | doi = 10.1002/mus.25262 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Szafranski K, Schindler S, Taudien S, Hiller M, Huse K, Jahn N, Schreiber S, Backofen R, Platzer M | title = Violating the splicing rules: TG dinucleotides function as alternative 3' splice sites in U2-dependent introns | journal = Genome Biology | volume = 8 | issue = 8 | pages = R154 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17672918 | pmc = 2374985 | doi = 10.1186/gb-2007-8-8-r154 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Szafranski K, Schindler S, Taudien S, Hiller M, Huse K, Jahn N, Schreiber S, Backofen R, Platzer M | title = Violating the splicing rules: TG dinucleotides function as alternative 3' splice sites in U2-dependent introns | journal = Genome Biology | volume = 8 | issue = 8 | pages = R154 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17672918 | pmc = 2374985 | doi = 10.1186/gb-2007-8-8-r154 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = He M, Rutledge SL, Kelly DR, Palmer CA, Murdoch G, Majumder N, Nicholls RD, Pei Z, Watkins PA, Vockley J | title = A new genetic disorder in mitochondrial fatty acid beta-oxidation: ACAD9 deficiency | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 81 | issue = 1 | pages = 87–103 | date = Jul 2007 | pmid = 17564966 | pmc = 1950923 | doi = 10.1086/519219 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = He M, Rutledge SL, Kelly DR, Palmer CA, Murdoch G, Majumder N, Nicholls RD, Pei Z, Watkins PA, Vockley J | title = A new genetic disorder in mitochondrial fatty acid beta-oxidation: ACAD9 deficiency | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 81 | issue = 1 | pages = 87–103 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 17564966 | pmc = 1950923 | doi = 10.1086/519219 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Oey NA, Ruiter JP, Ijlst L, Attie-Bitach T, Vekemans M, Wanders RJ, Wijburg FA | title = Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase 9 (ACAD 9) is the long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase in human embryonic and fetal brain | journal = Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications | volume = 346 | issue = 1 | pages = 33–7 | date = Jul 2006 | pmid = 16750164 | doi = 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.05.088 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Oey NA, Ruiter JP, Ijlst L, Attie-Bitach T, Vekemans M, Wanders RJ, Wijburg FA | title = Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase 9 (ACAD 9) is the long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase in human embryonic and fetal brain | journal = Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications | volume = 346 | issue = 1 | pages = 33–7 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16750164 | doi = 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.05.088 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Ensenauer R, He M, Willard JM, Goetzman ES, Corydon TJ, Vandahl BB, Mohsen AW, Isaya G, Vockley J | title = Human acyl-CoA dehydrogenase-9 plays a novel role in the mitochondrial beta-oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 280 | issue = 37 | pages = 32309–16 | date = Sep 2005 | pmid = 16020546 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M504460200 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Ensenauer R, He M, Willard JM, Goetzman ES, Corydon TJ, Vandahl BB, Mohsen AW, Isaya G, Vockley J | title = Human acyl-CoA dehydrogenase-9 plays a novel role in the mitochondrial beta-oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 280 | issue = 37 | pages = 32309–16 | date = September 2005 | pmid = 16020546 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M504460200 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Oey NA, den Boer ME, Ruiter JP, Wanders RJ, Duran M, Waterham HR, Boer K, van der Post JA, Wijburg FA | title = High activity of fatty acid oxidation enzymes in human placenta: implications for fetal-maternal disease | journal = Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 385–92 | year = 2004 | pmid = 12971426 | doi = 10.1023/A:1025163204165 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Oey NA, den Boer ME, Ruiter JP, Wanders RJ, Duran M, Waterham HR, Boer K, van der Post JA, Wijburg FA | title = High activity of fatty acid oxidation enzymes in human placenta: implications for fetal-maternal disease | journal = Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 385–92 | year = 2004 | pmid = 12971426 | doi = 10.1023/A:1025163204165 }}
{{refend}}
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[[Category:Human proteins]]
[[Category:Human proteins]]

Latest revision as of 04:55, 24 August 2018

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Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase family member 9, mitochondrial is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ACAD9 gene.[1][2] Mitochondrial Complex I Deficiency with varying clinical manifestations has been associated with mutations in ACAD9.[3]

Structure

The ACAD9 gene contains an open reading frame of 1866 base pairs; this gene encodes a protein with 621 amino acid residues. Alignment of the ACAD9 protein sequence with that of other human ACAD proteins showed that ACAD-9 protein displays 46–27% identity, and 56–38% similarity with the eight members of the ACAD family, including ACADVL, ACADS, ACADM, ACADL, IVD, GCD, ACADSB, and ACD8. The calculated molecular weight of the ACAD9 is 68.8 kDa.[1]

Function

The ACAD9 enzyme catalyzes a crucial step in fatty acid beta-oxidation by forming a C2-C3 trans-double bond in the fatty acid. LVCAD is specific to very long-chain fatty acids, typically C16-acylCoA and longer.[4] It has been observed that ACAD9 can catalyze acyl-CoAs with very long chains. The specific activity of ACAD9 towards palmitoyl-CoA (C16:0) is three times higher than that towards stearoyl-CoA (C18:0). ACAD-9 has little activity on n-octanoyl-CoA (C8:0), n-butyryl-CoA (C4:0) or isovaleryl-CoA (C5:0).[1]

In contrast with ACADVL, ACAD9 is also involved in assembly of the oxidative phosphorylation complex I. ACAD9 binds complex I assembly factors NDUFAF1 and Ecsit and is specifically required for the assembly of complex I. Furthermore, ACAD9 mutations result in complex I deficiency and not in disturbed long-chain fatty acid oxidation.[5]

Clinical significance

Mutations in the ACAD9 gene are associated with Mitochondrial Complex I Deficiency, which is autosomal recessive. This deficiency is the most common enzymatic defect of the oxidative phosphorylation disorders.[6][7] Mitochondrial complex I deficiency shows extreme genetic heterogeneity and can be caused by mutation in nuclear-encoded genes or in mitochondrial-encoded genes. There are no obvious genotype-phenotype correlations, and inference of the underlying basis from the clinical or biochemical presentation is difficult, if not impossible.[8] However, the majority of cases are caused by mutations in nuclear-encoded genes.[9][10] It causes a wide range of clinical disorders, ranging from lethal neonatal disease to adult-onset neurodegenerative disorders. Phenotypes include macrocephaly with progressive leukodystrophy, nonspecific encephalopathy, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, myopathy, liver disease, Leigh syndrome, Leber hereditary optic neuropathy, and some forms of Parkinson disease.[11]

A few cases specific to ACAD9 have been reported. Some cases presented with episodic liver dysfunction during otherwise mild illnesses or cardiomyopathy, along with chronic neurologic dysfunction. Brain findings were notable for generalized edema with diffuse ventricular compression, acute left tonsillar herniation, and diffuse multifocal acute damage in the hippocampus. In addition, some abnormalities consistent with nonacute changes were seen, including a subacute right cerebellar hemispheric infarct and reduction in the number of neurons in several areas.[12] In one patient, whose clinical manifestations of hypotonia, cardiomyopathy, and lactic acidosis, a vigorous treatment with riboflavin allowed the individual to have normal psychomotor development and no cognitive impairment at 5 years of age.[13] Exercise-induced rhabdomyolysis, mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, and hyperplasia in liver, cardiac myocytes, skeletal muscle, and renal tubules have also been observed in patients with ACAD9 mutations.[14][15][3]

Interactions

ACAD9 is part of the mitochondrial complex I assembly (MCIA) complex. The complex comprises at least TMEM126B, NDUFAF1, ECSIT, and ACAD9, which interacts directly with NDUFAF1 and ECSIT.[5]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Zhang J, Zhang W, Zou D, Chen G, Wan T, Zhang M, Cao X (October 2002). "Cloning and functional characterization of ACAD-9, a novel member of human acyl-CoA dehydrogenase family". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 297 (4): 1033–42. doi:10.1016/S0006-291X(02)02336-7. PMID 12359260.
  2. ↑ "Entrez Gene: ACAD9 acyl-Coenzyme A dehydrogenase family, member 9".
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Leslie N, Wang X, Peng Y, Valencia CA, Khuchua Z, Hata J, Witte D, Huang T, Bove KE (March 2016). "Neonatal multiorgan failure due to ACAD9 mutation and complex I deficiency with mitochondrial hyperplasia in liver, cardiac myocytes, skeletal muscle, and renal tubules". Human Pathology. 49: 27–32. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2015.09.039. PMID 26826406.
  4. ↑ Aoyama T, Souri M, Ushikubo S, Kamijo T, Yamaguchi S, Kelley RI, Rhead WJ, Uetake K, Tanaka K, Hashimoto T (June 1995). "Purification of human very-long-chain acyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase and characterization of its deficiency in seven patients". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 95 (6): 2465–73. doi:10.1172/JCI117947. PMC 295925. PMID 7769092.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Nouws J, Nijtmans L, Houten SM, van den Brand M, Huynen M, Venselaar H, Hoefs S, Gloerich J, Kronick J, Hutchin T, Willems P, Rodenburg R, Wanders R, van den Heuvel L, Smeitink J, Vogel RO (September 2010). "Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase 9 is required for the biogenesis of oxidative phosphorylation complex I". Cell Metabolism. 12 (3): 283–94. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2010.08.002. PMID 20816094.
  6. ↑ Kirby DM, Salemi R, Sugiana C, Ohtake A, Parry L, Bell KM, Kirk EP, Boneh A, Taylor RW, Dahl HH, Ryan MT, Thorburn DR (September 2004). "NDUFS6 mutations are a novel cause of lethal neonatal mitochondrial complex I deficiency". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 114 (6): 837–45. doi:10.1172/JCI20683. PMC 516258. PMID 15372108.
  7. ↑ McFarland R, Kirby DM, Fowler KJ, Ohtake A, Ryan MT, Amor DJ, Fletcher JM, Dixon JW, Collins FA, Turnbull DM, Taylor RW, Thorburn DR (January 2004). "De novo mutations in the mitochondrial ND3 gene as a cause of infantile mitochondrial encephalopathy and complex I deficiency". Annals of Neurology. 55 (1): 58–64. doi:10.1002/ana.10787. PMID 14705112.
  8. ↑ Haack TB, Haberberger B, Frisch EM, Wieland T, Iuso A, Gorza M, Strecker V, Graf E, Mayr JA, Herberg U, Hennermann JB, Klopstock T, Kuhn KA, Ahting U, Sperl W, Wilichowski E, Hoffmann GF, Tesarova M, Hansikova H, Zeman J, Plecko B, Zeviani M, Wittig I, Strom TM, Schuelke M, Freisinger P, Meitinger T, Prokisch H (April 2012). "Molecular diagnosis in mitochondrial complex I deficiency using exome sequencing". Journal of Medical Genetics. 49 (4): 277–83. doi:10.1136/jmedgenet-2012-100846. PMID 22499348.
  9. ↑ Loeffen JL, Smeitink JA, Trijbels JM, Janssen AJ, Triepels RH, Sengers RC, van den Heuvel LP (2000). "Isolated complex I deficiency in children: clinical, biochemical and genetic aspects". Human Mutation. 15 (2): 123–34. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-1004(200002)15:2<123::AID-HUMU1>3.0.CO;2-P. PMID 10649489.
  10. ↑ Triepels RH, Van Den Heuvel LP, Trijbels JM, Smeitink JA (2001). "Respiratory chain complex I deficiency". American Journal of Medical Genetics. 106 (1): 37–45. doi:10.1002/ajmg.1397. PMID 11579423.
  11. ↑ Robinson BH (May 1998). "Human complex I deficiency: clinical spectrum and involvement of oxygen free radicals in the pathogenicity of the defect". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1364 (2): 271–86. doi:10.1016/s0005-2728(98)00033-4. PMID 9593934.
  12. ↑ He M, Rutledge SL, Kelly DR, Palmer CA, Murdoch G, Majumder N, Nicholls RD, Pei Z, Watkins PA, Vockley J (July 2007). "A new genetic disorder in mitochondrial fatty acid beta-oxidation: ACAD9 deficiency". American Journal of Human Genetics. 81 (1): 87–103. doi:10.1086/519219. PMC 1950923. PMID 17564966.
  13. ↑ Haack TB, Danhauser K, Haberberger B, Hoser J, Strecker V, Boehm D, Uziel G, Lamantea E, Invernizzi F, Poulton J, Rolinski B, Iuso A, Biskup S, Schmidt T, Mewes HW, Wittig I, Meitinger T, Zeviani M, Prokisch H (December 2010). "Exome sequencing identifies ACAD9 mutations as a cause of complex I deficiency". Nature Genetics. 42 (12): 1131–4. doi:10.1038/ng.706. PMID 21057504.
  14. ↑ Garone C, Donati MA, Sacchini M, Garcia-Diaz B, Bruno C, Calvo S, Mootha VK, Dimauro S (September 2013). "Mitochondrial encephalomyopathy due to a novel mutation in ACAD9". JAMA Neurology. 70 (9): 1177–9. doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.3197. PMC 3891824. PMID 23836383.
  15. ↑ Daniel R, Singh M, O'Rourke K (November 2015). "Another "Complex" Case: Complex I Deficiency Secondary to Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase 9 Mutation". The American Journal of the Medical Sciences. 350 (5): 423–4. doi:10.1097/MAJ.0000000000000570. PMID 26445304.

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