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{{SI}}                                                                  
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'''For the main page on colitis, please click [[Colitis|here]]'''<br>
'''For more information on allergic colitis, please click [[Allergic colitis|here]]'''<br>
'''For more information on infectious colitis, please click [[Infectious colitis|here]]'''<br>
'''For more information on ischemic colitis, please click [[Ischemic colitis|here]]'''<br>
'''For more information on chemical colitis, please click [[Chemical colitis|here]]'''<br>
'''For more information on drug-induced colitis, please click [[Drug-induced colitis|here]]'''<br>
                                                   
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{QS}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{QS}}
   
   
{{SK}}  
{{SK}} Radiation proctocolitis


==Overview==
==Overview==
Radiation therapy is a common treatment modality for Abdominal and pelvic malignancy. Radiation colitis may complicate this radiotherapy. Radiation colitis tends to develop insidiously and it is often progressive.
Radiation therapy is a common treatment modality for abdominal and pelvic [[malignancy]]. Radiation colitis may complicate this treatment. Radiation colitis tends to develop insidiously and it is often progressive when chronic.


==Historical Perspective==
==Historical Perspective==
*Radiation-induced enteritis was first described by Walsh in an individual working with [[X-rays|x rays]] in 1897.<ref name="pmid20757183">{{cite journal| author=Walsh D| title=Deep Tissue Traumatism from Roentgen Ray Exposure. | journal=Br Med J | year= 1897 | volume= 2 | issue= 1909 | pages= 272-3 | pmid=20757183 | doi= | pmc=2407341 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20757183  }} </ref>
*In 1917, radiation-induced enteritis was reported following [[Radiation therapy|radiation treatment]] of [[malignancy]].
*The early and late intestinal effect of [[Radiation therapy|radiotherapy]] was first described by Warren and Friedman in 1942.<ref name="pmid19970638">{{cite journal| author=Warren S, Friedman NB| title=Pathology and Pathologic Diagnosis of Radiation Lesions in the Gastro-Intestinal Tract. | journal=Am J Pathol | year= 1942 | volume= 18 | issue= 3 | pages= 499-513 | pmid=19970638 | doi= | pmc=2032955 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19970638  }} </ref>


==Classification==
==Classification==
Radiation colitis may be classified based on duration of symptoms into [[acute]] and [[Chronic (medical)|chronic]] radiation colitis:<ref name="pmid12107832">{{cite journal| author=Denton AS, Andreyev HJ, Forbes A, Maher EJ| title=Systematic review for non-surgical interventions for the management of late radiation proctitis. | journal=Br J Cancer | year= 2002 | volume= 87 | issue= 2 | pages= 134-43 | pmid=12107832 | doi=10.1038/sj.bjc.6600360 | pmc=2376119 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12107832  }} </ref><ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997  }} </ref><ref name="pmid20011363">{{cite journal| author=Kennedy GD, Heise CP| title=Radiation colitis and proctitis. | journal=Clin Colon Rectal Surg | year= 2007 | volume= 20 | issue= 1 | pages= 64-72 | pmid=20011363 | doi=10.1055/s-2007-970202 | pmc=2780150 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20011363  }} </ref><ref name="pmid23345941">{{cite journal| author=Shadad AK, Sullivan FJ, Martin JD, Egan LJ| title=Gastrointestinal radiation injury: symptoms, risk factors and mechanisms. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2013 | volume= 19 | issue= 2 | pages= 185-98 | pmid=23345941 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v19.i2.185 | pmc=3547560 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23345941  }} </ref>
*Acute radiation colitis occurs from after the initiation of [[Radiation therapy|therapy]] to 3 months (90 days) after the onset of therapy.
*Chronic radiation colitis occurs from after 3 months of [[radiation therapy]] to years after therapy, with a median duration of 8 to 12 months after completion of [[radiation therapy]].


==Pathophysiology==
==Pathophysiology==
*Occur following radiation therapy for Abdominal and pelvic malignancies .<ref name="pmid16693707">{{cite journal| author=Keith NM, Whelan M| title=A STUDY OF THE ACTION OF AMMONIUM CHLORID AND ORGANIC MERCURY COMPOUNDS. | journal=J Clin Invest | year= 1926 | volume= 3 | issue= 1 | pages= 149-202 | pmid=16693707 | doi=10.1172/JCI100072 | pmc=434619 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16693707 }} </ref><ref name="pmid27504391">{{cite journal| author=Bansal N, Soni A, Kaur P, Chauhan AK, Kaushal V| title=Exploring the Management of Radiation Proctitis in Current Clinical Practice. | journal=J Clin Diagn Res | year= 2016 | volume= 10 | issue= 6 | pages= XE01-XE06 | pmid=27504391 | doi=10.7860/JCDR/2016/17524.7906 | pmc=4963751 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27504391 }} </ref><ref name="pmid27462390">{{cite journal| author=Nelamangala Ramakrishnaiah VP, Krishnamachari S| title=Chronic haemorrhagic radiation proctitis: A review. | journal=World J Gastrointest Surg | year= 2016 | volume= 8 | issue= 7 | pages= 483-91 | pmid=27462390 | doi=10.4240/wjgs.v8.i7.483 | pmc=4942748 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27462390 }} </ref><ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue= | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997 }} </ref><ref name="pmid20011363">{{cite journal| author=Kennedy GD, Heise CP| title=Radiation colitis and proctitis. | journal=Clin Colon Rectal Surg | year= 2007 | volume= 20 | issue= 1 | pages= 64-72 | pmid=20011363 | doi=10.1055/s-2007-970202 | pmc=2780150 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20011363 }} </ref><ref name="pmid11488787">{{cite journal| author=Hayne D, Vaizey CJ, Boulos PB| title=Anorectal injury following pelvic radiotherapy. | journal=Br J Surg | year= 2001 | volume= 88 | issue= 8 | pages= 1037-48 | pmid=11488787 | doi=10.1046/j.0007-1323.2001.01809.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11488787  }} </ref>
===Pathogenesis===
*More common with radiation doses higher than 45Gy.<ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997  }} </ref>
*Radiation colitis occurs following [[radiation therapy]] for abdominal and [[Pelvic masses|pelvic malignancies]].<ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue= | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997 }} </ref><ref name="pmid20011363">{{cite journal| author=Kennedy GD, Heise CP| title=Radiation colitis and proctitis. | journal=Clin Colon Rectal Surg | year= 2007 | volume= 20 | issue= 1 | pages= 64-72 | pmid=20011363 | doi=10.1055/s-2007-970202 | pmc=2780150 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20011363 }} </ref><ref name="pmid16693707">{{cite journal| author=Keith NM, Whelan M| title=A STUDY OF THE ACTION OF AMMONIUM CHLORID AND ORGANIC MERCURY COMPOUNDS. | journal=J Clin Invest | year= 1926 | volume= 3 | issue= 1 | pages= 149-202 | pmid=16693707 | doi=10.1172/JCI100072 | pmc=434619 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16693707 }} </ref><ref name="pmid27504391">{{cite journal| author=Bansal N, Soni A, Kaur P, Chauhan AK, Kaushal V| title=Exploring the Management of Radiation Proctitis in Current Clinical Practice. | journal=J Clin Diagn Res | year= 2016 | volume= 10 | issue= 6 | pages= XE01-XE06 | pmid=27504391 | doi=10.7860/JCDR/2016/17524.7906 | pmc=4963751 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27504391 }} </ref><ref name="pmid27462390">{{cite journal| author=Nelamangala Ramakrishnaiah VP, Krishnamachari S| title=Chronic haemorrhagic radiation proctitis: A review. | journal=World J Gastrointest Surg | year= 2016 | volume= 8 | issue= 7 | pages= 483-91 | pmid=27462390 | doi=10.4240/wjgs.v8.i7.483 | pmc=4942748 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27462390 }} </ref><ref name="pmid11488787">{{cite journal| author=Hayne D, Vaizey CJ, Boulos PB| title=Anorectal injury following pelvic radiotherapy. | journal=Br J Surg | year= 2001 | volume= 88 | issue= 8 | pages= 1037-48 | pmid=11488787 | doi=10.1046/j.0007-1323.2001.01809.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11488787  }} </ref>
*The main site of damage is the DNA. Pathogenesis involves direct ionizing damage to the DNA resulting in inhibition mitosis. Radiation may also affect RNA, proteins and cell membranes. Oxidative injury to the DNA may also be contributory to the development of radiation colitis.  
*It is more common with [[Radiation (medicine)|radiation doses]] higher than 45Gy.<ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997  }} </ref>
**Injury occur few hours to days, up to three months after irradiation in acute radiation colitis. It affects rapidly dividing cells of the epithelium and mucosa crypts. This leads to cell death, recruitment and activation of polymorphonuclear (PMN) inflammatory cells, mucosal edema and damage to small blood vessels. The effect of this damage to the mucosa is fluid, electrolyte and nutrient loss. Radiation also reduces bowel motility. Acute radiation colitis is usually transient and self limiting, with regeneration of the epithelium.
*The main site of damage is [[DNA]]. The pathogenesis involves direct ionizing damage to the [[DNA]] resulting in inhibition of [[mitosis]]. Radiation may also affect [[RNA]], [[Protein|proteins]], and [[cell membranes]]. [[Oxidative stress|Oxidative injury]] to the [[DNA]] may also contribute to the development of radiation colitis.  
**In chronic radiation colitis, mesenchymal tissue is involved. The damage is progressive with atrophy of the mucosa, fibrosis of the intestinal wall, obliteration of small arteries, chronic ischemia, ulcers, strictures and fistula formation. This changes usually occur three months to years after radiation. Secondary colonic malignancy may occur.
**Injury may occur a few hours to days, up to three months after [[irradiation]] in acute radiation colitis. It affects rapidly dividing cells of the [[epithelium]] and [[mucosa]] crypts. This leads to cell death, recruitment and activation of [[Polymorphonuclear cells|polymorphonuclear]] (PMN) inflammatory cells, [[mucosal]] edema and damage to small blood vessels. The effect of this damage to the [[Mucous membrane|mucosa]] is [[fluid]], [[electrolyte]] and nutrient loss. [[Radiation]] also reduces bowel motility. Acute radiation colitis is usually transient and self limiting, with regeneration of the epithelium.
**In chronic radiation colitis, [[mesenchymal]] tissue is involved. The damage is progressive with [[atrophy]] of the [[Mucous membrane|mucosa]], [[fibrosis]] of the intestinal wall, obliteration of small arteries, chronic [[ischemia]], [[ulcers]], [[strictures]], and [[fistula]] formation. This changes usually occur three months to years after radiation. Secondary [[Colonic carcinoma|colonic malignancy]] may occur.


===Genetics===
===Genetics===
There is no specific genetic cause for radiation colitis.
There is no specific genetic cause for radiation colitis.


===Gross Pathology===
===Gross Pathology===
 
*[[Endoscopy]] should be gentle and performed with care, especially in acute radiation colitis.  
Endoscopy should be gentle and with care especially in acute radiation colitis.  
*In acute radiation colitis, the [[mucosa]] may appear [[erythematous]] or pale, edematous, friable with or without small erosions.  
*The mucosa may appear erythematous or pale, is edematous, friable with or without small erosions in acute radiation colitis.  
*In chronic radiation colitis, mucosa atrophy, [[fibrosis]], obliterative arteritis, [[stenosis]], [[strictures]], [[fistula]], and [[ulcers]] are observed.  
*In chronic radiation colitis, mucosa atrophy, fibrosis, obliterative arteritis, stenosis, strictures, fistula and ulcers are seen.


===Microscopic Histopathology===
===Microscopic Histopathology===
Histopathological findings of radiation colitis may be categorized into the following:


Histopathological findings of radiation colitis may be categorized into the following
*Acute: Reduced [[mitosis]], increased [[apoptotic]] bodies, [[mucin]] depletion, [[eosinophilia]], presence of [[crypt abscess]]es, and evidence of regeneration
*Chronic: Dilated capillaries and lymphatics, [[hyaline]] [[fibrosis]], atypical fibroblast and endothelial cells, and distortion of the crypts.


*Acute: Reduced mitosis, increased apoptosis bodies, mucin depletion, eosinophilia, presence of crypt abscesses and evidence of regeneration
==Differentiating Radiation Colitis from Other Diseases==
*Chronic: Dilated capillaries and lymphatics, hyaline fibrosis, atypical fibroblast and endothelial cells and distortion of the crypts.
Symptoms of acute radiation acute radiation [[proctitis]] may overlap with other causes of acute [[colitis]], but prior history of radiation will help in distinguishing the cause. Differential diagnosis of acute radiation colitis include:
*[[Allergic colitis]]
*[[Chemical colitis]]
*[[NSAID-induced colitis]]
*[[Ischemic colitis]]


==Differentiating radiation colitis from other Diseases==
Differential diagnosis of chronic radiation colitis include:
Symptoms of acute radiation proctitis may overlap with other causes of acute colitis, but prior history of radiation will help in distinguishing the cause. Differential diagnosis of acute radiation colitis include:
*[[Ischemic colitis]]
*Allergic colitis  
*[[Inflammatory bowel disease]]
*Chemical colitis
*NSAID induced colitis
*Ischemic colitis


Differential diagnosis of chronic radiation colitis include:
*The symptoms of colitis, such as [[diarrhea]] (especially bloody diarrhea), and [[abdominal pain]] are observed in all forms of colitis. The table below lists the differential diagnosis of common causes of colitis:<ref name="pmid14702426">{{cite journal| author=Thielman NM, Guerrant RL| title=Clinical practice. Acute infectious diarrhea. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2004 | volume= 350 | issue= 1 | pages= 38-47 | pmid=14702426 | doi=10.1056/NEJMcp031534 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14702426  }} </ref><ref name="pmid15537721">{{cite journal| author=Khan AM, Faruque AS, Hossain MS, Sattar S, Fuchs GJ, Salam MA| title=Plesiomonas shigelloides-associated diarrhoea in Bangladeshi children: a hospital-based surveillance study. | journal=J Trop Pediatr | year= 2004 | volume= 50 | issue= 6 | pages= 354-6 | pmid=15537721 | doi=10.1093/tropej/50.6.354 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15537721  }} </ref>
*Ischemic colitis
{|
*Inflammatory bowel disease
|- style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |Diseases
! colspan="4" |History and Symptoms
! colspan="4" |Physical Examination
! colspan="4" |Laboratory findings
|- style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;"
![[Diarrhea]]
![[Rectal bleeding]]
![[Abdominal pain]]
![[Atopy]]
![[Dehydration]]
![[Fever]]
![[Hypotension]]
![[Malnutrition]]
![[Blood in stool]] (frank or occult)
!Microorganism in stool
!Pseudomembranes on endoscopy
!Lab Test 4
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Allergic Colitis
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Chemical colitis
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Infectious colitis
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Radiation colitis
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Ischemic colitis
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Drug-induced colitis
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | ++
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | +
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|}


==Epidemiology and Demographics==
==Epidemiology and Demographics==


The exact prevalence and incidence of radiation colitis is not certain due to different methods of definition. The incidence of acute radiation injury to the bowel is said to be about 75% to 80% of patients receiving pelvic radiotherapy, while 15% to 20% of patients receiving pelvic radiotherapy will develop chronic radiation injury to the bowel. <ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997  }} </ref><ref name="pmid23208963">{{cite journal| author=Tortora A, Purchiaroni F, Scarpellini E, Ojetti V, Gabrielli M, Vitale G et al.| title=Colitides. | journal=Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci | year= 2012 | volume= 16 | issue= 13 | pages= 1795-805 | pmid=23208963 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23208963 }} </ref><ref name="pmid23345941">{{cite journal| author=Shadad AK, Sullivan FJ, Martin JD, Egan LJ| title=Gastrointestinal radiation injury: symptoms, risk factors and mechanisms. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2013 | volume= 19 | issue= 2 | pages= 185-98 | pmid=23345941 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v19.i2.185 | pmc=3547560 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23345941 }} </ref><ref name="pmid11488787">{{cite journal| author=Hayne D, Vaizey CJ, Boulos PB| title=Anorectal injury following pelvic radiotherapy. | journal=Br J Surg | year= 2001 | volume= 88 | issue= 8 | pages= 1037-48 | pmid=11488787 | doi=10.1046/j.0007-1323.2001.01809.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11488787 }} </ref>
The exact prevalence and incidence of radiation colitis is not certain due to different methods of definition. The incidence of acute radiation injury to the bowel is said to be about 75% to 80% of patients receiving pelvic [[radiotherapy]], while 15% to 20% of patients receiving pelvic radiotherapy will develop chronic radiation injury to the bowel. <ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997  }} </ref><ref name="pmid23345941">{{cite journal| author=Shadad AK, Sullivan FJ, Martin JD, Egan LJ| title=Gastrointestinal radiation injury: symptoms, risk factors and mechanisms. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2013 | volume= 19 | issue= 2 | pages= 185-98 | pmid=23345941 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v19.i2.185 | pmc=3547560 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23345941 }} </ref><ref name="pmid11488787">{{cite journal| author=Hayne D, Vaizey CJ, Boulos PB| title=Anorectal injury following pelvic radiotherapy. | journal=Br J Surg | year= 2001 | volume= 88 | issue= 8 | pages= 1037-48 | pmid=11488787 | doi=10.1046/j.0007-1323.2001.01809.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11488787 }} </ref><ref name="pmid23208963">{{cite journal| author=Tortora A, Purchiaroni F, Scarpellini E, Ojetti V, Gabrielli M, Vitale G et al.| title=Colitides. | journal=Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci | year= 2012 | volume= 16 | issue= 13 | pages= 1795-805 | pmid=23208963 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23208963 }} </ref>


===Age===
===Age===
The prevalence of radiation colitis is more among older age group (over 60 years) patients. This may be a reflection of the increase frequency of predisposing malignancy requiring radiotherapy in this age group. <ref name="pmid23208963">{{cite journal| author=Tortora A, Purchiaroni F, Scarpellini E, Ojetti V, Gabrielli M, Vitale G et al.| title=Colitides. | journal=Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci | year= 2012 | volume= 16 | issue= 13 | pages= 1795-805 | pmid=23208963 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23208963  }} </ref><ref name="pmid23345941">{{cite journal| author=Shadad AK, Sullivan FJ, Martin JD, Egan LJ| title=Gastrointestinal radiation injury: symptoms, risk factors and mechanisms. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2013 | volume= 19 | issue= 2 | pages= 185-98 | pmid=23345941 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v19.i2.185 | pmc=3547560 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23345941 }} </ref>
The prevalence of radiation colitis is more among older age group (over 60 years) patients. This may be a reflection of the increase frequency of predisposing [[malignancy]] requiring [[radiotherapy]] in this age group.<ref name="pmid23345941">{{cite journal| author=Shadad AK, Sullivan FJ, Martin JD, Egan LJ| title=Gastrointestinal radiation injury: symptoms, risk factors and mechanisms. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2013 | volume= 19 | issue= 2 | pages= 185-98 | pmid=23345941 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v19.i2.185 | pmc=3547560 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23345941  }} </ref><ref name="pmid23208963">{{cite journal| author=Tortora A, Purchiaroni F, Scarpellini E, Ojetti V, Gabrielli M, Vitale G et al.| title=Colitides. | journal=Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci | year= 2012 | volume= 16 | issue= 13 | pages= 1795-805 | pmid=23208963 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23208963  }} </ref><ref name="pmid7635768">{{cite journal| author=Eifel PJ, Levenback C, Wharton JT, Oswald MJ| title=Time course and incidence of late complications in patients treated with radiation therapy for FIGO stage IB carcinoma of the uterine cervix. | journal=Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys | year= 1995 | volume= 32 | issue= 5 | pages= 1289-300 | pmid=7635768 | doi=10.1016/0360-3016(95)00118-I | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7635768 }} </ref>


===Gender===
===Gender===
Line 63: Line 181:


==Risk Factors==
==Risk Factors==
Common risk factors for developing radiation colitis include:<ref name="pmid23345941">{{cite journal| author=Shadad AK, Sullivan FJ, Martin JD, Egan LJ| title=Gastrointestinal radiation injury: symptoms, risk factors and mechanisms. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2013 | volume= 19 | issue= 2 | pages= 185-98 | pmid=23345941 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v19.i2.185 | pmc=3547560 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23345941 }} </ref><ref name="pmid20011363">{{cite journal| author=Kennedy GD, Heise CP| title=Radiation colitis and proctitis. | journal=Clin Colon Rectal Surg | year= 2007 | volume= 20 | issue= 1 | pages= 64-72 | pmid=20011363 | doi=10.1055/s-2007-970202 | pmc=2780150 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20011363 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19109862">{{cite journal| author=Kountouras J, Zavos C| title=Recent advances in the management of radiation colitis. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2008 | volume= 14 | issue= 48 | pages= 7289-301 | pmid=19109862 | doi= | pmc=2778112 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19109862  }} </ref>
Common risk factors for developing radiation colitis include:<ref name="pmid20011363">{{cite journal| author=Kennedy GD, Heise CP| title=Radiation colitis and proctitis. | journal=Clin Colon Rectal Surg | year= 2007 | volume= 20 | issue= 1 | pages= 64-72 | pmid=20011363 | doi=10.1055/s-2007-970202 | pmc=2780150 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20011363 }} </ref><ref name="pmid23345941">{{cite journal| author=Shadad AK, Sullivan FJ, Martin JD, Egan LJ| title=Gastrointestinal radiation injury: symptoms, risk factors and mechanisms. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2013 | volume= 19 | issue= 2 | pages= 185-98 | pmid=23345941 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v19.i2.185 | pmc=3547560 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23345941 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19109862">{{cite journal| author=Kountouras J, Zavos C| title=Recent advances in the management of radiation colitis. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2008 | volume= 14 | issue= 48 | pages= 7289-301 | pmid=19109862 | doi= | pmc=2778112 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19109862  }} </ref>


*Radiation dose greater than 54 Gy
*Radiation dose greater than 54 Gy
*Elderly (above 60 years)
*[[Advanced age]] (above 60 years)
*Past radical abdominal or pelvic surgery such as radical hysterectomy and radical colectomy
*Past radical abdominal or pelvic surgery such as radical [[hysterectomy]] and radical colectomy
*Asthenic individuals
*[[Asthenia|Asthenic]] individuals
*Smoking
*[[Smoking]]
*Chronic co-morbid medical diseases such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension and atherosclerosis
*Chronic co-morbid medical diseases such as [[diabetes mellitus]], [[hypertension]], and [[atherosclerosis]]
*Past pelvic inflammatory disease
*Prior [[pelvic inflammatory disease]]
*Collagen vascular disease
*[[Collagen vascular disease]]
*HIV infection- Hypothesized to increase risk for radiation toxicity in the colon
*[[HIV infection]], which is hypothesized to increase risk for radiation toxicity in the colon


==Screening==
==Screening==
There are no established screening guidelines for radiation colitis<ref name=Screening-radiationcolitis>US preventive service task force.radiation colitis. http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/accessed on November 13, 2016</ref>
There are no established screening guidelines for radiation colitis<ref name="Screening-radiationcolitis">US preventive service task force.radiation colitis. http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/accessed on November 13, 2016</ref>


== Natural History, Complications and Prognosis==
== Natural History, Complications and Prognosis==
===Natural History===
===Natural History===


The symptoms and extent of radiation colitis are variable and usually develop insidiously. The symptoms depend on the dose and duration of the radiation and the how sensitive the bowel is to radiation. In acute radiation colitis, symptoms usually starts shortly after commencement of radiation therapy and progress reaching a peak 1 to 2 weeks later. The symptoms of acute radiation colitis may not start for up to 3 months after commencement of radiation. In most cases, the symptoms of acute radiation colitis are self-limiting and resolve following termination of radiation therapy. The symptoms of chronic radiation colitis often become noticeable months to years after the completion of radiotherapy. The symptoms may occasionally follow acute radiation colitis. However, previous acute radiation colitis does not increase the risk of a patient developing chronic radiation colitis. Also, absence of acute radiation colitis, does not prevent chronic radiation colitis from occurring. injuryTreatment is required for chronic radiation colitis because resolution of the symptoms is uncommon without intervention. <ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997  }} </ref><ref name="pmid6603628">{{cite journal| author=Gilinsky NH, Burns DG, Barbezat GO, Levin W, Myers HS, Marks IN| title=The natural history of radiation-induced proctosigmoiditis: an analysis of 88 patients. | journal=Q J Med | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 205 | pages= 40-53 | pmid=6603628 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6603628  }} </ref>
The symptoms and extent of radiation colitis are variable and usually develop insidiously. The symptoms depend on the dose and duration of the [[radiation]] and how sensitive the bowel is to radiation. In acute radiation colitis, symptoms usually start shortly after commencement of [[radiation therapy]] and progress reaching a peak 1 to 2 weeks later. The symptoms of acute radiation colitis may not start for up to 3 months after commencement of radiation. In most cases, the symptoms of acute radiation colitis are self-limiting and resolve following termination of [[radiation therapy]]. The symptoms of chronic radiation colitis often become noticeable months to years after the completion of [[radiotherapy]]. The symptoms may occasionally follow acute radiation colitis. However, previous acute radiation colitis does not increase the risk of a patient developing chronic radiation colitis. Also, absence of acute radiation colitis, does not prevent chronic radiation colitis from occurring. Treatment is required for chronic radiation colitis because resolution of the symptoms is uncommon without intervention.<ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997  }} </ref><ref name="pmid6603628">{{cite journal| author=Gilinsky NH, Burns DG, Barbezat GO, Levin W, Myers HS, Marks IN| title=The natural history of radiation-induced proctosigmoiditis: an analysis of 88 patients. | journal=Q J Med | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 205 | pages= 40-53 | pmid=6603628 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6603628  }} </ref>


===Complications===
===Complications===
Possible complications of radiation colitis include:<ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997  }} </ref><ref name="pmid6603628">{{cite journal| author=Gilinsky NH, Burns DG, Barbezat GO, Levin W, Myers HS, Marks IN| title=The natural history of radiation-induced proctosigmoiditis: an analysis of 88 patients. | journal=Q J Med | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 205 | pages= 40-53 | pmid=6603628 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6603628  }} </ref>
Possible complications of radiation colitis include:<ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997  }} </ref><ref name="pmid6603628">{{cite journal| author=Gilinsky NH, Burns DG, Barbezat GO, Levin W, Myers HS, Marks IN| title=The natural history of radiation-induced proctosigmoiditis: an analysis of 88 patients. | journal=Q J Med | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 205 | pages= 40-53 | pmid=6603628 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6603628  }} </ref>
*Anemia
*[[Anemia]]
*Intestinal obstruction
*[[Intestinal obstruction]]
*Intestinal perforation
*[[Intestinal perforation]]
*Fistula
*[[Fistula]]
*Fecal incontinence
*[[Fecal incontinence]]
*Strictures
*[[Strictures]]
*Malabsorption
*[[Malabsorption]]
*Failure to thrive
*[[Failure to thrive]]
*Sepsis due to loss of the mucosal protective barrier  
*[[Sepsis]], due to loss of the mucosal protective barrier  
*Secondary malignancy (uncommon).<ref name="pmid21712948">{{cite journal| author=Asano N, Iijima K, Terai S, Uno K, Endo H, Koike T et al.| title=Signet Ring Cell Gastric Cancer Occurring after Radiation Therapy for Helicobacter pylori-Uninfected Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue Lymphoma. | journal=Case Rep Gastroenterol | year= 2011 | volume= 5 | issue= 2 | pages= 325-9 | pmid=21712948 | doi=10.1159/000329559 | pmc=3124325 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21712948  }} </ref><ref name="pmid16734262">{{cite journal| author=Narui K, Ike H, Fujii S, Nojiri K, Tatsumi K, Yamagishi S et al.| title=[A case of radiation-induced rectal cancer]. | journal=Nihon Shokakibyo Gakkai Zasshi | year= 2006 | volume= 103 | issue= 5 | pages= 551-7 | pmid=16734262 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16734262  }} </ref>
*Secondary malignancy (uncommon)<ref name="pmid21712948">{{cite journal| author=Asano N, Iijima K, Terai S, Uno K, Endo H, Koike T et al.| title=Signet Ring Cell Gastric Cancer Occurring after Radiation Therapy for Helicobacter pylori-Uninfected Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue Lymphoma. | journal=Case Rep Gastroenterol | year= 2011 | volume= 5 | issue= 2 | pages= 325-9 | pmid=21712948 | doi=10.1159/000329559 | pmc=3124325 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21712948  }} </ref><ref name="pmid16734262">{{cite journal| author=Narui K, Ike H, Fujii S, Nojiri K, Tatsumi K, Yamagishi S et al.| title=[A case of radiation-induced rectal cancer]. | journal=Nihon Shokakibyo Gakkai Zasshi | year= 2006 | volume= 103 | issue= 5 | pages= 551-7 | pmid=16734262 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16734262  }} </ref>


===Prognosis===
===Prognosis===
The prognosis of radiation colitis varies with the subtype, severity, duration and responsiveness to treatment.<ref name="pmid6603628">{{cite journal| author=Gilinsky NH, Burns DG, Barbezat GO, Levin W, Myers HS, Marks IN| title=The natural history of radiation-induced proctosigmoiditis: an analysis of 88 patients. | journal=Q J Med | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 205 | pages= 40-53 | pmid=6603628 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6603628 }} </ref>
The prognosis of radiation colitis varies with the subtype, severity, duration and responsiveness to treatment.<ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue= | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19109862">{{cite journal| author=Kountouras J, Zavos C| title=Recent advances in the management of radiation colitis. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2008 | volume= 14 | issue= 48 | pages= 7289-301 | pmid=19109862 | doi= | pmc=2778112 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19109862  }} </ref><ref name="pmid6603628">{{cite journal| author=Gilinsky NH, Burns DG, Barbezat GO, Levin W, Myers HS, Marks IN| title=The natural history of radiation-induced proctosigmoiditis: an analysis of 88 patients. | journal=Q J Med | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 205 | pages= 40-53 | pmid=6603628 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6603628 }} </ref>
<ref name="pmid19109862">{{cite journal| author=Kountouras J, Zavos C| title=Recent advances in the management of radiation colitis. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2008 | volume= 14 | issue= 48 | pages= 7289-301 | pmid=19109862 | doi= | pmc=2778112 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19109862  }} </ref><ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue= | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997 }} </ref>
*Acute radiation colitis is usually self-limiting, with resolution of symptoms few weeks after stopping radiotherapy.  
*Acute radiation colitis is usually self-limiting, with resolution of symptoms few weeks after stopping radiotherapy.  
*Chronic radiation colitis is progressive and difficult to manage. The patients may develop secondary radiation-associated malignancy which has a poor prognosis due to late diagnosis.
*Chronic radiation colitis is progressive and difficult to manage. The patients may develop secondary radiation-associated malignancy which has a poor prognosis due to late diagnosis.
Line 104: Line 221:
== Diagnosis ==
== Diagnosis ==
===Diagnostic Criteria===
===Diagnostic Criteria===
There is no definitive diagnostic criteria for radiation colitis. Diagnosis of radiation colitis is primarily clinical; it is based on history, physical examination and endoscopic findings.<ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997  }} </ref><ref name="pmid6603628">{{cite journal| author=Gilinsky NH, Burns DG, Barbezat GO, Levin W, Myers HS, Marks IN| title=The natural history of radiation-induced proctosigmoiditis: an analysis of 88 patients. | journal=Q J Med | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 205 | pages= 40-53 | pmid=6603628 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6603628  }} </ref>
There is no definitive diagnostic criteria for radiation colitis. Diagnosis of radiation colitis is primarily [[clinical]]; it is based on [[History and Physical examination|history, physical examination]] and [[Endoscopy|endoscopic]] findings.<ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997  }} </ref><ref name="pmid6603628">{{cite journal| author=Gilinsky NH, Burns DG, Barbezat GO, Levin W, Myers HS, Marks IN| title=The natural history of radiation-induced proctosigmoiditis: an analysis of 88 patients. | journal=Q J Med | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 205 | pages= 40-53 | pmid=6603628 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6603628  }} </ref>


=== Symptoms ===
=== History and Symptoms ===
Obtaining a complete history including dietary history is an important aspect in making a diagnosis of radiation colitis. It provides insight into the cause, and any associated underlying conditions. Radiation colitis should be suspected in any individual who presents with intestinal symptoms and has a previous history of abdominal and/ or pelvic radiotherapy. Symptoms of radiation colitis may be categorized according to duration as follows:
Obtaining a complete [[History and Physical examination|history]] including dietary history is an important aspect in making a diagnosis of radiation colitis. It provides insight into the cause, and any associated underlying conditions. Radiation colitis should be suspected in any individual who presents with intestinal symptoms and has a previous history of abdominal and/ or pelvic radiotherapy. Symptoms of radiation colitis may be categorized according to duration as follows:
====Acute radiation colitis====
====Acute radiation colitis====
*[[Diarrhea]]
*[[Diarrhea]]
*[[Abdominal pain]] which is colicky (cramping and intermittent)
*[[Abdominal pain]] which is colicky (cramping and intermittent)
*[[Nausea]]
*[[Nausea]]
*Urgency
*[[Urgency]]
*Fecal frequency  
*[[Fecal]] frequency  
*[[Tenesmus]]  
*[[Tenesmus]]  
*Mucus discharge
*[[Mucus]] discharge
*Rectal bleeding
*[[Rectal bleeding]]
 
====Chronic radiation colitis====
====Chronic radiation colitis====
*Symptoms of acute radiation colitis
*Symptoms of acute radiation colitis
*Rectal bleeding, which may be severe
*[[Rectal bleeding]], which may be severe
*Symptoms of sepsis
*Symptoms of [[sepsis]]
*[[Constipation]]
*[[Constipation]]
*[[Abdominal pain]]
*[[Abdominal pain]]
*[[Abdominal distension]]
*[[Abdominal distension]]
*[[Vomiting]]
*[[Vomiting]]
*[[Fecal vomiting]] especially when stricture develops
*[[Fecal vomiting]], especially when stricture develops


=== Physical Examination ===
=== Physical Examination ===
Physical examination findings may reveal:
Physical examination findings may reveal:
*Signs of [[dehydration]] such as lethargy, [[Tachycardia]] and [[Hypotension]]
*Signs of [[dehydration]] such as [[lethargy]], [[tachycardia]], and [[hypotension]]
*[[Abdominal tenderness]] which may be more prominent in lower abdominal quadrants due to involvement of the distal sigmoid colon and/ or rectum
*[[Abdominal tenderness]] which may be more prominent in lower abdominal quadrants due to involvement of the [[distal]] [[sigmoid colon]] and/ or [[rectum]]
*[[Fever]] due to dehydration or in individuals who have developed sepsis
*[[Fever]] due to dehydration or in individuals who have developed [[sepsis]]
*[[Pallor]]
*[[Pallor]]
*Toxic appearance in those with bowel perforation and sepsis
*Toxic appearance in those with [[bowel perforation]] and [[sepsis]]


=== Laboratory Findings ===
=== Laboratory Findings ===
Line 139: Line 257:
====Hematology====
====Hematology====
*[[Anemia]]
*[[Anemia]]
*[[Leukocytosis]] with [[left shift]] may be seen with sepsis common, but [[leukopenia]] can be seen.
*[[Leukocytosis]] with [[left shift]] may be seen with sepsis common, but [[leukopenia]] may be observed


====Electolytes====
====Electolytes====
Line 145: Line 263:


====Stool Examination====
====Stool Examination====
Stool analysis may show
Stool analysis may show:
*[[Fecal blood]]
*Fecal blood
*[[Fecal leukocytes]]
*Fecal leukocytes
*Microorganism on stool culture in case of sepsis
*Negative stool culture


===Endoscopy===
===Endoscopy===
Endoscopy is important to confirm the diagnosis of radiation colitis. However, endoscopy should be done with care due to the fragile nature of the bowel following radiation therapy. Biopsy is generally not recommended during endoscopy especially in acute radiation colitis.<ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997  }} </ref><ref name="pmid6603628">{{cite journal| author=Gilinsky NH, Burns DG, Barbezat GO, Levin W, Myers HS, Marks IN| title=The natural history of radiation-induced proctosigmoiditis: an analysis of 88 patients. | journal=Q J Med | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 205 | pages= 40-53 | pmid=6603628 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6603628  }} </ref>
[[Endoscopy]] is important to confirm the diagnosis of radiation colitis. However, endoscopy should be performed with care due to the fragile nature of the bowel following radiation therapy. Biopsy is generally not recommended during endoscopy especially in acute radiation colitis.<ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997  }} </ref><ref name="pmid6603628">{{cite journal| author=Gilinsky NH, Burns DG, Barbezat GO, Levin W, Myers HS, Marks IN| title=The natural history of radiation-induced proctosigmoiditis: an analysis of 88 patients. | journal=Q J Med | year= 1983 | volume= 52 | issue= 205 | pages= 40-53 | pmid=6603628 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6603628  }} </ref>
*Features seen in acute radiation colitis on endoscopy include friable, hyperemic, edematous mucosa with/ or without ulcers that are often shallow. The features seen in acute radiation colitis are limited to the superficial parts of the colonic mucosa.
*Features observed in acute radiation colitis on endoscopy include friable, hyperemic, edematous mucosa with/ or without ulcers that are often shallow. The features in acute radiation colitis are limited to the superficial parts of the colonic mucosa.
*Chronic radiation colitis involves the whole of the colonic mucosa. Features include mucosal pallor, fibrosis, strictures, ulcers and telangiectasias which bleeds easily. The colonic wall is often rigid.
*Chronic radiation colitis involves the whole of the colonic mucosa. Features include [[mucosal pallor]], [[fibrosis]], [[strictures]], [[ulcers]], and [[telangiectasias]], which bleeds easily. The colonic wall is often rigid.


=== Other Diagnostic Studies ===
=== Other Diagnostic Studies ===
Other diagnostic studies in radiation colitis include:<ref name="pmid11488787">{{cite journal| author=Hayne D, Vaizey CJ, Boulos PB| title=Anorectal injury following pelvic radiotherapy. | journal=Br J Surg | year= 2001 | volume= 88 | issue= 8 | pages= 1037-48 | pmid=11488787 | doi=10.1046/j.0007-1323.2001.01809.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11488787  }} </ref>
Other diagnostic studies in radiation colitis include:<ref name="pmid11488787">{{cite journal| author=Hayne D, Vaizey CJ, Boulos PB| title=Anorectal injury following pelvic radiotherapy. | journal=Br J Surg | year= 2001 | volume= 88 | issue= 8 | pages= 1037-48 | pmid=11488787 | doi=10.1046/j.0007-1323.2001.01809.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11488787  }} </ref>
====Barium enema====
====Barium enema====
May show decreased peristalsis and distention of the colon, stenosis, presence of ulcers and fistulas. It is less sensitive to endoscopy
May show decreased [[peristalsis]] and [[distention]] of the colon, [[stenosis]], presence of [[ulcers]], and [[fistulas]]. It is less sensitive to endoscopy
====CT scan====
 
CT findings include increased density and fibrosis of the pericolonic fat, fascia and colonic wall. Difficult to distinguish between radiation colitis and cancer.
====CT====
CT findings include increased density and [[fibrosis]] of the pericolonic fat, fascia and colonic wall. It also helps to rule out perforation. It is difficult to distinguish between radiation colitis and cancer.
 
====X Ray====
There are no specific x ray features of radiation colitis. However, it may be helpful to rule out perforation.


== Treatment ==
== Treatment ==
=== Medical Therapy ===
=== Medical Therapy ===
Treatment of radiation colitis depends on the type, whether acute or chronic radiation colitis.<ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997  }} </ref><ref name="pmid19109862">{{cite journal| author=Kountouras J, Zavos C| title=Recent advances in the management of radiation colitis. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2008 | volume= 14 | issue= 48 | pages= 7289-301 | pmid=19109862 | doi= | pmc=2778112 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19109862  }} </ref>
The mainstay of treatment for radiation colitis is conservative medical therapy. Medical therapy depends on whether radiation colitis is acute or chronic.<ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997 }} </ref><ref name="pmid20011363">{{cite journal| author=Kennedy GD, Heise CP| title=Radiation colitis and proctitis. | journal=Clin Colon Rectal Surg | year= 2007 | volume= 20 | issue= 1 | pages= 64-72 | pmid=20011363 | doi=10.1055/s-2007-970202 | pmc=2780150 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20011363  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27462390">{{cite journal| author=Nelamangala Ramakrishnaiah VP, Krishnamachari S| title=Chronic haemorrhagic radiation proctitis: A review. | journal=World J Gastrointest Surg | year= 2016 | volume= 8 | issue= 7 | pages= 483-91 | pmid=27462390 | doi=10.4240/wjgs.v8.i7.483 | pmc=4942748 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27462390  }} </ref><ref name="pmid11488787">{{cite journal| author=Hayne D, Vaizey CJ, Boulos PB| title=Anorectal injury following pelvic radiotherapy. | journal=Br J Surg | year= 2001 | volume= 88 | issue= 8 | pages= 1037-48 | pmid=11488787 | doi=10.1046/j.0007-1323.2001.01809.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11488787 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19109862">{{cite journal| author=Kountouras J, Zavos C| title=Recent advances in the management of radiation colitis. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2008 | volume= 14 | issue= 48 | pages= 7289-301 | pmid=19109862 | doi= | pmc=2778112 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19109862 }} </ref><ref name="pmid22057051">{{cite journal| author=Andreyev HJ, Davidson SE, Gillespie C, Allum WH, Swarbrick E, British Society of Gastroenterology et al.| title=Practice guidance on the management of acute and chronic gastrointestinal problems arising as a result of treatment for cancer. | journal=Gut | year= 2012 | volume= 61 | issue= 2 | pages= 179-92 | pmid=22057051 | doi=10.1136/gutjnl-2011-300563 | pmc=3245898 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22057051 }} </ref>
====Acute radiation colitis====
====Acute radiation colitis====
Acute radiation colitis is a self-limiting illness which usually resolves on stopping radiotherapy. Supportive therapy is the only treatment required in the majority of cases. These include:
Acute radiation colitis is a self-limiting illness which usually resolves on stopping radiotherapy. Supportive therapy is the only treatment required in the majority of cases. These include:
*Correction of dehydration and electrolyte derangements using intravenous fluids or oral rehydration therapy whenever it is feasible
*Correction of [[dehydration]] and electrolyte derangements by giving intravenous fluids or oral rehydration therapy whenever feasible
*Use of anti-diarrhea medications like loperamide
*Use of [[anti-diarrheal]] medications, such as [[loperamide]]
*Dietary modification by decreasing fat and lactose intake
*Dietary modification by decreasing fat and lactose intake
*Use of synthetic somatostatin analog octreotide in patients with refractory diarrhea
*Use of synthetic [[somatostatin]] analog octreotide in patients with refractory diarrhea
*Steroid and 5-aminosalicylic acid suppositories have also been used to treat bowel inflammation associated with radiation therapy.
*Steroid and 5-aminosalicylic acid suppositories have also been used to treat bowel inflammation associated with radiation therapy
*Definitive treatment is by stopping radiation therapy
*Definitive treatment is by stopping radiation therapy


====Chronic radiation colitis====
====Chronic radiation colitis====
Chronic radiation colitis
Chronic radiation colitis is a progressive disease that is often difficult to treat. The colon is fragile with [[fibrosis]] and neovascularization, making it prone to bleeding with minimal trauma. The most frequent symptom of chronic radiation colitis is [[diarrhea]]. Treatment of chronic radiation colitis includes:
=== Surgery ===
*Supportive fluid and electrolyte replacement due to chronic diarrhea and use of anti-diarrhea medications
*Giving high fiber (low residue) diet, with low lactose and fats
*Anti-inflammatory therapy using non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs ([[NSAIDs]]) such as 5-aminosalicylic acid or sulfasalazine with/without the addition of steroids is often the first-line treatment used in most cases of chronic radiation colitis
*[[Sucralfate]] (a sulphated polyanionic disaccharide) is used when anti-inflammatory therapy fails to improve symptoms. It is thought work through promotion of healing of the intestinal epithelium and formation of a protective barrier in the bowel.
*[[Hyperbaric oxygen therapy]] (HBO) is also used in the treatment of chronic radiation colitis. It is thought to work through its angiogenic and antibacterial effects, reducing tissue hypoxia and therefore promoting colonic mucosa healing and regeneration.
*[[Short chain fatty acid]] (SCFA) enemas have also been used in the treatment of radiation colitis. They stimulate colonic mucosa proliferation and have vasodilatory effect on the arteriole walls.
*Anti-oxidants such as vitamins A, C and E have been used as adjuncts in the treatment of chronic radiation colitis, with favorable response.
*Transfusion may be required to treat anemia from hemorrhagic telengiectasia.
 
===Ablative therapy===
Ablative treatment using [[formalin]], endoscopic coagulation, or argon plasma coagulation is done when symptom fail to improve with medical therapy. Ablative treatment should be done with care in patients with chronic radiation colitis because of the fragile bowel which increases the risk of complications such as bleeding, stenosis, perforation and fistula formation.
 
=== Surgical Therapy ===
Surgical intervention in chronic radiation colitis is commonly reserved for management of complications or rarely for diagnosis. About 10 to 30 percent of individuals with radiation colitis will require surgery.<ref name="pmid22144997">{{cite journal| author=Do NL, Nagle D, Poylin VY| title=Radiation proctitis: current strategies in management. | journal=Gastroenterol Res Pract | year= 2011 | volume= 2011 | issue=  | pages= 917941 | pmid=22144997 | doi=10.1155/2011/917941 | pmc=3226317 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22144997  }} </ref><ref name="pmid19109862">{{cite journal| author=Kountouras J, Zavos C| title=Recent advances in the management of radiation colitis. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2008 | volume= 14 | issue= 48 | pages= 7289-301 | pmid=19109862 | doi= | pmc=2778112 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19109862  }} </ref>
Indications for surgery in radiation colitis include:
*[[Intestinal obstruction]]
*[[Intestinal perforation]]
*[[Fistulae formation]]
*Severe bleeding
*Rarely, for treatment of uncontrollable pain
 
Surgical interventions for chronic radiation colitis include intestinal bypass procedures, colonic resection, and bowel reconstruction.
 
==Prevention==
 
===Primary prevention===
There is presently no established method of prevention for radiation colitis. However, individuals with chronic radiation colitis should be followed up closely because of the risk of development of secondary radiation-induced malignancy.


=== Prevention ===
===Secondary prevention===
There are no secondary prevention methods for radiation colitis.


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}
{{WS}}
[[Category:Primary care]]
{{WH}}
 
[[Category:Gastroenterology]]
[[Category:Gastroenterology]]
[[Category:Radiology]]
[[Category:Radiology]]
{{WS}}
{{WH}}

Latest revision as of 23:56, 29 July 2020

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Qasim Salau, M.B.B.S., FMCPaed [2]

Synonyms and keywords: Radiation proctocolitis

Overview

Radiation therapy is a common treatment modality for abdominal and pelvic malignancy. Radiation colitis may complicate this treatment. Radiation colitis tends to develop insidiously and it is often progressive when chronic.

Historical Perspective

  • Radiation-induced enteritis was first described by Walsh in an individual working with x rays in 1897.[1]
  • In 1917, radiation-induced enteritis was reported following radiation treatment of malignancy.
  • The early and late intestinal effect of radiotherapy was first described by Warren and Friedman in 1942.[2]

Classification

Radiation colitis may be classified based on duration of symptoms into acute and chronic radiation colitis:[3][4][5][6]

  • Acute radiation colitis occurs from after the initiation of therapy to 3 months (90 days) after the onset of therapy.
  • Chronic radiation colitis occurs from after 3 months of radiation therapy to years after therapy, with a median duration of 8 to 12 months after completion of radiation therapy.

Pathophysiology

Pathogenesis

Genetics

There is no specific genetic cause for radiation colitis.

Gross Pathology

  • Endoscopy should be gentle and performed with care, especially in acute radiation colitis.
  • In acute radiation colitis, the mucosa may appear erythematous or pale, edematous, friable with or without small erosions.
  • In chronic radiation colitis, mucosa atrophy, fibrosis, obliterative arteritis, stenosis, strictures, fistula, and ulcers are observed.

Microscopic Histopathology

Histopathological findings of radiation colitis may be categorized into the following:

Differentiating Radiation Colitis from Other Diseases

Symptoms of acute radiation acute radiation proctitis may overlap with other causes of acute colitis, but prior history of radiation will help in distinguishing the cause. Differential diagnosis of acute radiation colitis include:

Differential diagnosis of chronic radiation colitis include:

  • The symptoms of colitis, such as diarrhea (especially bloody diarrhea), and abdominal pain are observed in all forms of colitis. The table below lists the differential diagnosis of common causes of colitis:[11][12]
Diseases History and Symptoms Physical Examination Laboratory findings
Diarrhea Rectal bleeding Abdominal pain Atopy Dehydration Fever Hypotension Malnutrition Blood in stool (frank or occult) Microorganism in stool Pseudomembranes on endoscopy Lab Test 4
Allergic Colitis + ++ + ++ ++
Chemical colitis + ++ ++ + + ++ +
Infectious colitis ++ ++ ++ +++ +++ ++ + ++ ++ +
Radiation colitis + ++ + + + ++
Ischemic colitis + + ++ + + + + ++
Drug-induced colitis + + ++ + ++ +

Epidemiology and Demographics

The exact prevalence and incidence of radiation colitis is not certain due to different methods of definition. The incidence of acute radiation injury to the bowel is said to be about 75% to 80% of patients receiving pelvic radiotherapy, while 15% to 20% of patients receiving pelvic radiotherapy will develop chronic radiation injury to the bowel. [4][6][10][13]

Age

The prevalence of radiation colitis is more among older age group (over 60 years) patients. This may be a reflection of the increase frequency of predisposing malignancy requiring radiotherapy in this age group.[6][13][14]

Gender

Men and women are affected equally by radiation colitis.

Race

There is no racial predilection to radiation colitis.

Risk Factors

Common risk factors for developing radiation colitis include:[5][6][15]

Screening

There are no established screening guidelines for radiation colitis[16]

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

Natural History

The symptoms and extent of radiation colitis are variable and usually develop insidiously. The symptoms depend on the dose and duration of the radiation and how sensitive the bowel is to radiation. In acute radiation colitis, symptoms usually start shortly after commencement of radiation therapy and progress reaching a peak 1 to 2 weeks later. The symptoms of acute radiation colitis may not start for up to 3 months after commencement of radiation. In most cases, the symptoms of acute radiation colitis are self-limiting and resolve following termination of radiation therapy. The symptoms of chronic radiation colitis often become noticeable months to years after the completion of radiotherapy. The symptoms may occasionally follow acute radiation colitis. However, previous acute radiation colitis does not increase the risk of a patient developing chronic radiation colitis. Also, absence of acute radiation colitis, does not prevent chronic radiation colitis from occurring. Treatment is required for chronic radiation colitis because resolution of the symptoms is uncommon without intervention.[4][17]

Complications

Possible complications of radiation colitis include:[4][17]

Prognosis

The prognosis of radiation colitis varies with the subtype, severity, duration and responsiveness to treatment.[4][15][17]

  • Acute radiation colitis is usually self-limiting, with resolution of symptoms few weeks after stopping radiotherapy.
  • Chronic radiation colitis is progressive and difficult to manage. The patients may develop secondary radiation-associated malignancy which has a poor prognosis due to late diagnosis.

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Criteria

There is no definitive diagnostic criteria for radiation colitis. Diagnosis of radiation colitis is primarily clinical; it is based on history, physical examination and endoscopic findings.[4][17]

History and Symptoms

Obtaining a complete history including dietary history is an important aspect in making a diagnosis of radiation colitis. It provides insight into the cause, and any associated underlying conditions. Radiation colitis should be suspected in any individual who presents with intestinal symptoms and has a previous history of abdominal and/ or pelvic radiotherapy. Symptoms of radiation colitis may be categorized according to duration as follows:

Acute radiation colitis

Chronic radiation colitis

Physical Examination

Physical examination findings may reveal:

Laboratory Findings

Initial investigations should include hematological, biochemistry profiles and stool examination.

Hematology

Electolytes

Stool Examination

Stool analysis may show:

  • Fecal blood
  • Fecal leukocytes
  • Negative stool culture

Endoscopy

Endoscopy is important to confirm the diagnosis of radiation colitis. However, endoscopy should be performed with care due to the fragile nature of the bowel following radiation therapy. Biopsy is generally not recommended during endoscopy especially in acute radiation colitis.[4][17]

  • Features observed in acute radiation colitis on endoscopy include friable, hyperemic, edematous mucosa with/ or without ulcers that are often shallow. The features in acute radiation colitis are limited to the superficial parts of the colonic mucosa.
  • Chronic radiation colitis involves the whole of the colonic mucosa. Features include mucosal pallor, fibrosis, strictures, ulcers, and telangiectasias, which bleeds easily. The colonic wall is often rigid.

Other Diagnostic Studies

Other diagnostic studies in radiation colitis include:[10]

Barium enema

May show decreased peristalsis and distention of the colon, stenosis, presence of ulcers, and fistulas. It is less sensitive to endoscopy

CT

CT findings include increased density and fibrosis of the pericolonic fat, fascia and colonic wall. It also helps to rule out perforation. It is difficult to distinguish between radiation colitis and cancer.

X Ray

There are no specific x ray features of radiation colitis. However, it may be helpful to rule out perforation.

Treatment

Medical Therapy

The mainstay of treatment for radiation colitis is conservative medical therapy. Medical therapy depends on whether radiation colitis is acute or chronic.[4][5][9][10][15][20]

Acute radiation colitis

Acute radiation colitis is a self-limiting illness which usually resolves on stopping radiotherapy. Supportive therapy is the only treatment required in the majority of cases. These include:

  • Correction of dehydration and electrolyte derangements by giving intravenous fluids or oral rehydration therapy whenever feasible
  • Use of anti-diarrheal medications, such as loperamide
  • Dietary modification by decreasing fat and lactose intake
  • Use of synthetic somatostatin analog octreotide in patients with refractory diarrhea
  • Steroid and 5-aminosalicylic acid suppositories have also been used to treat bowel inflammation associated with radiation therapy
  • Definitive treatment is by stopping radiation therapy

Chronic radiation colitis

Chronic radiation colitis is a progressive disease that is often difficult to treat. The colon is fragile with fibrosis and neovascularization, making it prone to bleeding with minimal trauma. The most frequent symptom of chronic radiation colitis is diarrhea. Treatment of chronic radiation colitis includes:

  • Supportive fluid and electrolyte replacement due to chronic diarrhea and use of anti-diarrhea medications
  • Giving high fiber (low residue) diet, with low lactose and fats
  • Anti-inflammatory therapy using non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as 5-aminosalicylic acid or sulfasalazine with/without the addition of steroids is often the first-line treatment used in most cases of chronic radiation colitis
  • Sucralfate (a sulphated polyanionic disaccharide) is used when anti-inflammatory therapy fails to improve symptoms. It is thought work through promotion of healing of the intestinal epithelium and formation of a protective barrier in the bowel.
  • Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBO) is also used in the treatment of chronic radiation colitis. It is thought to work through its angiogenic and antibacterial effects, reducing tissue hypoxia and therefore promoting colonic mucosa healing and regeneration.
  • Short chain fatty acid (SCFA) enemas have also been used in the treatment of radiation colitis. They stimulate colonic mucosa proliferation and have vasodilatory effect on the arteriole walls.
  • Anti-oxidants such as vitamins A, C and E have been used as adjuncts in the treatment of chronic radiation colitis, with favorable response.
  • Transfusion may be required to treat anemia from hemorrhagic telengiectasia.

Ablative therapy

Ablative treatment using formalin, endoscopic coagulation, or argon plasma coagulation is done when symptom fail to improve with medical therapy. Ablative treatment should be done with care in patients with chronic radiation colitis because of the fragile bowel which increases the risk of complications such as bleeding, stenosis, perforation and fistula formation.

Surgical Therapy

Surgical intervention in chronic radiation colitis is commonly reserved for management of complications or rarely for diagnosis. About 10 to 30 percent of individuals with radiation colitis will require surgery.[4][15] Indications for surgery in radiation colitis include:

Surgical interventions for chronic radiation colitis include intestinal bypass procedures, colonic resection, and bowel reconstruction.

Prevention

Primary prevention

There is presently no established method of prevention for radiation colitis. However, individuals with chronic radiation colitis should be followed up closely because of the risk of development of secondary radiation-induced malignancy.

Secondary prevention

There are no secondary prevention methods for radiation colitis.

References

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