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{{Infobox_gene}}
{{PBB_Controls
'''Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase mu''' is an [[enzyme]] that in humans is encoded by the ''PTPRM'' [[gene]].<ref name="pmid1655529">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gebbink MF, van Etten I, Hateboer G, Suijkerbuijk R, Beijersbergen RL, Geurts van Kessel A, Moolenaar WH | title = Cloning, expression and chromosomal localization of a new putative receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase | journal = FEBS Lett | volume = 290 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 123–30 | date = Nov 1991 | pmid = 1655529 | pmc =  | doi = 10.1016/0014-5793(91)81241-Y }}</ref><ref name="pmid8404049">{{cite journal | vauthors = Suijkerbuijk RF, Gebbink MF, Moolenaar WH, Geurts van Kessel A | title = Fine mapping of the human receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase gene (PTPRM) to 18p11.2 by fluorescence in situ hybridization | journal = Cytogenet Cell Genet | volume = 64 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 245–6 | date = Nov 1993 | pmid = 8404049 | pmc = | doi = 10.1159/000133598 }}</ref><ref name="entrez">{{cite web | title = Entrez Gene: PTPRM protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor type, M| url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=5797| accessdate = }}</ref>
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== Function ==
{{GNF_Protein_box
| image = PBB_Protein_PTPRM_image.jpg
| image_source = [[Protein_Data_Bank|PDB]] rendering based on 1rpm.
| PDB = {{PDB2|1rpm}}, {{PDB2|2c9a}}
| Name = Protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor type, M
| HGNCid = 9675
| Symbol = PTPRM
| AltSymbols =; PTPRL1; R-PTP-MU; RPTPM; RPTPU; hR-PTPu
| OMIM = 176888
| ECnumber = 
| Homologene = 37694
| MGIid = 102694
| Function = {{GNF_GO|id=GO:0004725 |text = protein tyrosine phosphatase activity}} {{GNF_GO|id=GO:0004872 |text = receptor activity}} {{GNF_GO|id=GO:0005001 |text = transmembrane receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase activity}} {{GNF_GO|id=GO:0016787 |text = hydrolase activity}}
| Component = {{GNF_GO|id=GO:0005887 |text = integral to plasma membrane}} {{GNF_GO|id=GO:0016020 |text = membrane}}
| Process = {{GNF_GO|id=GO:0006470 |text = protein amino acid dephosphorylation}}
| Orthologs = {{GNF_Ortholog_box
    | Hs_EntrezGene = 5797
    | Hs_Ensembl = ENSG00000173482
    | Hs_RefseqProtein = NP_002836
    | Hs_RefseqmRNA = NM_002845
    | Hs_GenLoc_db = 
    | Hs_GenLoc_chr = 18
    | Hs_GenLoc_start = 7557817
    | Hs_GenLoc_end = 8396160
    | Hs_Uniprot = P28827
    | Mm_EntrezGene = 19274
    | Mm_Ensembl = ENSMUSG00000033278
    | Mm_RefseqmRNA = NM_008984
    | Mm_RefseqProtein = NP_033010
    | Mm_GenLoc_db = 
    | Mm_GenLoc_chr = 17
    | Mm_GenLoc_start = 66571893
    | Mm_GenLoc_end = 67259402
    | Mm_Uniprot = Q3TPN4
  }}
}}
'''Protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor type, M''', also known as '''PTPRM''', is a human [[gene]].<ref name="entrez">{{cite web | title = Entrez Gene: PTPRM protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor type, M| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=5797| accessdate = }}</ref>


<!-- The PBB_Summary template is automatically maintained by Protein Box Bot.  See Template:PBB_Controls to Stop updates. -->
The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the protein [[tyrosine phosphatase]] (PTP) family. Protein tyrosine phosphatases are protein enzymes that remove phosphate moieties from tyrosine residues on other proteins.  Tyrosine kinases are enzymes that add phosphates to tyrosine residues, and are the opposing enzymes to PTPs.  PTPs are known to be signaling molecules that regulate a variety of cellular processes including cell growth, differentiation, mitotic cycle, and oncogenic transformation. PTPs can be both cytosolic and transmembrane.<ref name="pmid1339708">{{cite journal | vauthors = Tonks NK, Yang Q, Flint AJ, Gebbink MF, Franza BR, Hill DE, Sun H, Brady-Kalnay S | title = Protein tyrosine phosphatases: the problems of a growing family | journal = Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol | volume = 57 | issue =  | pages = 87–94 | year = 1992 | pmid = 1339708 | doi =  }}</ref><ref name="pmid14731595">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brady-Kalnay SM, Tonks NK | title = Protein tyrosine phosphatases: from structure to function | journal = Trends Cell Biol. | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 73–6 | date = March 1994 | pmid = 14731595 | doi = 10.1016/0962-8924(94)90172-4 }}</ref>
{{PBB_Summary
| section_title =
| summary_text = The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the protein [[tyrosine phosphatase]] (PTP) family. PTPs are known to be signaling molecules that regulate a variety of cellular processes including cell growth, differentiation, mitotic cycle, and oncogenic transformation. This PTP possesses an extracellular region, a single transmembrane region, and two tandem catalytic domains, and thus represents a receptor-type PTP. The extracellular region contains a meprin-A5 antigen-PTP mu (MAM) domain, an Ig-like domain and four fibronectin type III-like repeats. This PTP has been shown to mediate cell-cell aggregation through the interaction with another molecule of this PTP on an adjacent cell. This PTP can interact with scaffolding protein RACK1/GNB2L1, which may be necessary for the downstream signaling in response to cell-cell adhesion.<ref name="entrez">{{cite web | title = Entrez Gene: PTPRM protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor type, M| url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=5797| accessdate = }}</ref>
}}


==References==
== Structure ==
{{reflist|2}}
 
==Further reading==
Transmembrane PTPs are known as receptor [[protein tyrosine phosphatases]] (RPTPs). RPTPs are single pass transmembrane proteins usually with one or two catalytic domains in their intracellular domain (the part of the protein that is inside the cell) and diverse extracellular structures (the part of the protein that is outside the cell).<ref name="Brady-Kalnay 1998">{{cite book|last=Brady-Kalnay|first=S.M.|title=Ig Superfamily Molecules in the Nervous System|year=1998|publisher=Harwood Academic Publishers|location=Zurich|edition=6|editor=Peter Sonderegger|chapter=Ig-superfamily phosphatases}}</ref><ref name="Brady-Kalnay 2001 217–258">{{cite book|last=Brady-Kalnay|first=S.M.|title=Cell Adhesion: Frontiers in Molecular Biology.|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, UK.|pages=217–258|edition=39|editor=Beckerle, M.|chapter=Protein tyrosine phosphatases}}</ref>
{{refbegin | 2}}
 
{{PBB_Further_reading
PTPmu possesses an extracellular region, a single transmembrane region, a 158 amino acid long juxtamembrane domain and two tandem tyrosine phosphatase domains (referred to as D1 and D2) in its intracellular domain, and thus represents an RPTP.<ref name="pmid1655529"/>Only the membrane proximal phosphatase domain, D1, is catalytically active. The extracellular region contains a meprin-A5 antigen-PTP mu (MAM) domain, an Ig-like domain and four fibronectin type III-like repeats. There are other RPTPs that resemble PTPmu. These proteins are all grouped as type IIb RPTPs, and include PTPkappa (κ), PTPrho (ρ), and PCP-2. The structure of type IIb RPTPs classifies them as members of the [[immunoglobulin superfamily]] of [[cell adhesion molecules]], in addition to being tyrosine phosphatases.<ref name="Brady-Kalnay 1998"/><ref name="pmid8573339">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brady-Kalnay SM, Tonks NK | title = Protein tyrosine phosphatases as adhesion receptors. | journal = Curr Opin Cell Biol | volume = 7 | issue = 5 | pages = 650–7 | year = 1995 | pmid = 8573339 | doi = 10.1016/0955-0674(95)80106-5 }}</ref> The structure of PTPmu suggests that it can regulate cell adhesion and migration using its extracellular cell adhesion molecule features, while also regulating the level of tyrosine phosphorylation inside of cells using its catalytic tyrosine phosphatase domain.   A series of reviews have been written about RPTPs including PTPmu.<ref name="Brady-Kalnay 1998"/><ref name="Brady-Kalnay 2001 217–258"/><ref name = "Brady-Kalnay_1994">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brady-Kalnay SM, Tonks NK | title = Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatases, cell adhesion and signal transduction | journal = Advances in Protein Phosphatases | year = 1994 | volume = 8 | pages = 241–71 | issn = 0775-051X }}</ref><ref name="pmid11547917">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bixby JL | title = Ligands and signaling through receptor-type tyrosine phosphatases | journal = IUBMB Life | volume = 51 | issue = 3 | pages = 157–63 | date = March 2001 | pmid = 11547917 | doi = 10.1080/152165401753544223 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12456340">{{cite journal | vauthors = Beltran PJ, Bixby JL | title = Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatases as mediators of cellular adhesion | journal = Front. Biosci. | volume = 8 | issue = | pages = d87–99 | date = January 2003 | pmid = 12456340 | doi = 10.2741/941 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12506125">{{cite journal | vauthors = Johnson KG, Van Vactor D | title = Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatases in nervous system development. | journal = Physiol Rev | volume = 83 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–24 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12506125 | doi = 10.1152/physrev.00016.2002 }}</ref><ref name="pmid15464569">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ensslen-Craig SE, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatases regulate neural development and axon guidance. | journal = Dev Biol | volume = 275 | issue = 1 | pages = 12–22 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15464569 | doi = 10.1016/j.ydbio.2004.08.009 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16497668">{{cite journal | vauthors = Burridge K, Sastry SK, Sallee JL | title = Regulation of cell adhesion by protein-tyrosine phosphatases. I. Cell–matrix adhesion. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 281 | issue = 23 | pages = 15593–6 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16497668 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.R500030200 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16497667">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sallee JL, Wittchen ES, Burridge K | title = Regulation of cell adhesion by protein-tyrosine phosphatases: II. Cell–cell adhesion. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 281 | issue = 24 | pages = 16189–92 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16497667 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.R600003200 }}</ref><ref name="pmid21084269">{{cite journal | vauthors = Craig SE, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = Cancer cells cut homophilic cell adhesion molecules and run. | journal = Cancer Res | volume = 71 | issue = 2 | pages = 303–9 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21084269 | pmc = 3343737 | doi = 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-10-2301 }}</ref><ref name="pmid21235433">{{cite journal | vauthors = Craig SE, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = Tumor-derived extracellular fragments of receptor protein tyrosine phosphatases (RPTPs) as cancer molecular diagnostic tools. | journal = Anticancer Agents Med Chem | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 133–40 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21235433 | pmc = 3337336 | doi = 10.2174/187152011794941244 }}</ref> PTPmu is expressed in different organ tissues in the body, including the lung, heart and brain,<ref name="pmid7642713">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brady-Kalnay SM, Rimm DL, Tonks NK | title = Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase PTPmu associates with cadherins and catenins in vivo. | journal = J Cell Biol | volume = 130 | issue = 4 | pages = 977–86 | year = 1995 | pmid = 7642713 | pmc = 2199947 | doi = 10.1083/jcb.130.4.977 }}</ref> pancreas,<ref name="pmid10415859">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schnekenburger J, Mayerle J, Simon P, Domschke W, Lerch MM | title = Protein tyrosine dephosphorylation and the maintenance of cell adhesions in the pancreas. | journal = Ann N Y Acad Sci | volume = 880 | issue = | pages = 157–65 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10415859 | doi = 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb09518.x }}</ref> endothelial cells in capillaries and arteries throughout the body,<ref name="pmid8989520">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sommer L, Rao M, Anderson DJ | title = RPTP delta and the novel protein tyrosine phosphatase RPTP psi are expressed in restricted regions of the developing central nervous system. | journal = Dev Dyn | volume = 208 | issue = 1 | pages = 48–61 | year = 1997 | pmid = 8989520 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0177(199701)208:1<48::AID-AJA5>3.0.CO;2-1 }}</ref><ref name="pmid10094839">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bianchi C, Sellke FW, Del Vecchio RL, Tonks NK, Neel BG | title = Receptor-type protein-tyrosine phosphatase mu is expressed in specific vascular endothelial beds in vivo. | journal = Exp Cell Res | volume = 248 | issue = 1 | pages = 329–38 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10094839 | doi = 10.1006/excr.1999.4428 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12895029">{{cite journal | vauthors = Koop EA, Lopes SM, Feiken E, Bluyssen HA, van der Valk M, Voest EE, Mummery CL, Moolenaar WH, Gebbink MF | title = Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase mu expression as a marker for endothelial cell heterogeneity; analysis of RPTPmu gene expression using LacZ knock-in mice. | journal = Int J Dev Biol | volume = 47 | issue = 5 | pages = 345–54 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12895029 | doi = }}</ref> and in retinal and brain cells.<ref name="pmid10087273">{{cite journal | vauthors = Burden-Gulley SM, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = PTPmu regulates N-cadherin-dependent neurite outgrowth. | journal = J Cell Biol | volume = 144 | issue = 6 | pages = 1323–36 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10087273 | pmc = 2150569 | doi = 10.1083/jcb.144.6.1323 }}</ref><ref name="pmid11978837">{{cite journal | vauthors = Burden-Gulley SM, Ensslen SE, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = Protein tyrosine phosphatase-mu differentially regulates neurite outgrowth of nasal and temporal neurons in the retina. | journal = J Neurosci | volume = 22 | issue = 9 | pages = 3615–27 | year = 2002 | pmid = 11978837 }}</ref><ref name="pmid14623235">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ensslen SE, Rosdahl JA, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = The receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase mu, PTPmu, regulates histogenesis of the chick retina. | journal = Dev Biol | volume = 264 | issue = 1 | pages = 106–18 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14623235 | doi = 10.1016/j.ydbio.2003.08.009 }}</ref><ref name="pmid11085882">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chilton JK, Stoker AW | title = Expression of receptor protein tyrosine phosphatases in embryonic chick spinal cord. | journal = Mol Cell Neurosci | volume = 16 | issue = 4 | pages = 470–80 | year = 2000 | pmid = 11085882 | doi = 10.1006/mcne.2000.0887 }}</ref><ref name="pmid10213455">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ledig MM, McKinnell IW, Mrsic-Flogel T, Wang J, Alvares C, Mason I, Bixby JL, Mueller BK, Stoker AW | title = Expression of receptor tyrosine phosphatases during development of the retinotectal projection of the chick. | journal = J Neurobiol | volume = 39 | issue = 1 | pages = 81–96 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10213455 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4695(199904)39:1<81::AID-NEU7>3.0.CO;2-K }}</ref> PTPmu has been shown to increase the mRNA of the K+ channel Kv1.5 in cardiac myocytes when CHO cells expressing PTPmu are cultured with cardiac myocytes.<ref name="pmid10666036">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hershman KM, Levitan ES | title = RPTPmu and protein tyrosine phosphorylation regulate K(+) channel mRNA expression in adult cardiac myocytes. | journal = Am J Physiol Cell Physiol | volume = 278 | issue = 2 | pages = C397-403 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10666036 | doi =  }}</ref>
| citations =
 
*{{cite journal  | author=Gebbink MF, van Etten I, Hateboer G, ''et al.'' |title=Cloning, expression and chromosomal localization of a new putative receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase. |journal=FEBS Lett. |volume=290 |issue= 1-2 |pages= 123-30 |year= 1991 |pmid= 1655529 |doi=  }}
== Homophilic binding ==
*{{cite journal  | author=Brady-Kalnay SM, Rimm DL, Tonks NK |title=Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase PTPmu associates with cadherins and catenins in vivo. |journal=J. Cell Biol. |volume=130 |issue= 4 |pages= 977-86 |year= 1995 |pmid= 7642713 |doi= }}
 
*{{cite journal  | author=Zondag GC, Koningstein GM, Jiang YP, ''et al.'' |title=Homophilic interactions mediated by receptor tyrosine phosphatases mu and kappa. A critical role for the novel extracellular MAM domain. |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=270 |issue= 24 |pages= 14247-50 |year= 1995 |pmid= 7782276 |doi= }}
PTPmu protein expressed on the surface of cells is able to mediate binding between two cells, which results in the clustering of the cells, known as cell–cell aggregation.<ref name="pmid8394372">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brady-Kalnay SM, Flint AJ, Tonks NK | title = Homophilic binding of PTP mu, a receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase, can mediate cell–cell aggregation. | journal = J Cell Biol | volume = 122 | issue = 4 | pages = 961–72 | year = 1993 | pmid = 8394372 | pmc = 2119586 | doi = 10.1083/jcb.122.4.961 }}</ref><ref name="pmid8393854">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gebbink MF, Zondag GC, Wubbolts RW, Beijersbergen RL, van Etten I, Moolenaar WH | title = Cell–cell adhesion mediated by a receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 268 | issue = 22 | pages = 16101–4 | year = 1993 | pmid = 8393854 | doi =  }}</ref>  PTPmu accomplishes this by interacting with another PTPmu molecule on an adjacent cell, known as homophilic binding.  The Ig domain of PTPmu is responsible for promoting homophilic binding.<ref name="pmid7961788">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brady-Kalnay SM, Tonks NK | title = Identification of the homophilic binding site of the receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase PTP mu. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 269 | issue = 45 | pages = 28472–7 | year = 1994 | pmid = 7961788 | doi =  }}</ref>  The Ig domain is also responsible for localizing PTPmu to the plasma membrane surface of the cell.<ref name="pmid15491993">{{cite journal | vauthors = Del Vecchio RL, Tonks NK | title = The conserved immunoglobulin domain controls the subcellular localization of the homophilic adhesion receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase mu. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 280 | issue = 2 | pages = 1603–12 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15491993 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M410181200 }}</ref>  The ability of closely related molecules like PTPmu and PTPkappa to separate themselves to associate only with their identically matched (homologous) molecules, known as sorting, is attributed to the MAM domain.<ref name="pmid7782276">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zondag GC, Koningstein GM, Jiang YP, Sap J, Moolenaar WH, Gebbink MF | title = Homophilic interactions mediated by receptor tyrosine phosphatases mu and kappa. A critical role for the novel extracellular MAM domain. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 270 | issue = 24 | pages = 14247–50 | year = 1995 | pmid = 7782276 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.270.24.14247 }}</ref>  The MAM, Ig, and the first two FNIII repeats are the minimum extracellular domains required for efficient cell–cell adhesion.<ref name="pmid7961788"/><ref name="pmid15491993"/><ref name="pmid7782276"/><ref name="pmid15084579">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cismasiu VB, Denes SA, Reiländer H, Michel H, Szedlacsek SE | title = The MAM (meprin/A5-protein/PTPmu) domain is a homophilic binding site promoting the lateral dimerization of receptor-like protein-tyrosine phosphatase mu. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 279 | issue = 26 | pages = 26922–31 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15084579 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M313115200 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16456543">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aricescu AR, Hon WC, Siebold C, Lu W, van der Merwe PA, Jones EY | title = Molecular analysis of receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase mu-mediated cell adhesion. | journal = EMBO J | volume = 25 | issue = 4 | pages = 701–12 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16456543 | pmc = 1383555 | doi = 10.1038/sj.emboj.7600974 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17761881">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aricescu AR, Siebold C, Choudhuri K, Chang VT, Lu W, Davis SJ, van der Merwe PA, Jones EY | title = Structure of a tyrosine phosphatase adhesive interaction reveals a spacer-clamp mechanism. | journal = Science | volume = 317 | issue = 5842 | pages = 1217–20 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17761881 | doi = 10.1126/science.1144646 }}</ref><ref name="pmid18363557">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aricescu AR, Siebold C, Jones EY | title = Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase micro: measuring where to stick. | journal = Biochem Soc Trans | volume = 36 | issue = Pt 2 | pages = 167–72 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18363557 | doi = 10.1042/BST0360167 }}</ref> Crystallographic studies demonstrated that the MAM and Ig domains are tightly associated into one functional entity.<ref name="pmid16456543"/>  Additional crystal structure analysis by Aricescu and colleagues predicted that the adhesive interface between two PTPµ proteins is between the MAM and Ig domains of one PTPµ protein interacts with the first and second FN III domains of the second PTPµ protein.<ref name="pmid17761881"/>  The type IIb RPTPs mediate adhesion, with the exception of PCP-2.<ref name="pmid20521994">{{cite journal | vauthors = Becka S, Zhang P, Craig SE, Lodowski DT, Wang Z, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = Characterization of the adhesive properties of the type IIb subfamily receptor protein tyrosine phosphatases. | journal = Cell Commun Adhes | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | pages = 34–47 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20521994 | pmc = 3337334 | doi = 10.3109/15419061.2010.487957 }}</ref>
*{{cite journal | author=Brady-Kalnay SM, Tonks NK |title=Identification of the homophilic binding site of the receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase PTP mu. |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=269 |issue= 45 |pages= 28472-7 |year= 1994 |pmid= 7961788 |doi= }}
 
*{{cite journal | author=Brady-Kalnay SM, Flint AJ, Tonks NK |title=Homophilic binding of PTP mu, a receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase, can mediate cell-cell aggregation. |journal=J. Cell Biol. |volume=122 |issue= 4 |pages= 961-72 |year= 1993 |pmid= 8394372 |doi= }}
== Tyrosine phosphatase activity ==
*{{cite journal | author=Suijkerbuijk RF, Gebbink MF, Moolenaar WH, Geurts van Kessel A |title=Fine mapping of the human receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase gene (PTPRM) to 18p11.2 by fluorescence in situ hybridization. |journal=Cytogenet. Cell Genet. |volume=64 |issue= 3-4 |pages= 245-6 |year= 1993 |pmid= 8404049 |doi= }}
 
*{{cite journal | author=Campan M, Yoshizumi M, Seidah NG, ''et al.'' |title=Increased proteolytic processing of protein tyrosine phosphatase mu in confluent vascular endothelial cells: the role of PC5, a member of the subtilisin family. |journal=Biochemistry |volume=35 |issue= 12 |pages= 3797-802 |year= 1996 |pmid= 8620001 |doi= 10.1021/bi952552d }}
There are a number of ways that RPTP catalytic activity can be regulated (for reviews, see <ref name="Brady-Kalnay 2001 217–258"/><ref name="pmid11547917"/><ref name="pmid15464569"/><ref name="pmid10852814">{{cite journal | vauthors = Petrone A, Sap J | title = Emerging issues in receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase function: lifting fog or simply shifting? | journal = J Cell Sci | volume = 113 | issue = 13 | pages = 2345–54 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10852814 | doi =  }}</ref>).  Dimerization of identical RPTP proteins at the cell surface leaves the PTP domains either in an open active conformation, as in the case of PTPmu<ref name="pmid9346878">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hoffmann KM, Tonks NK, Barford D | title = The crystal structure of domain 1 of receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase mu. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 272 | issue = 44 | pages = 27505–8 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9346878 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.272.44.27505 }}</ref> and LAR,<ref name="pmid10338209">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nam HJ, Poy F, Krueger NX, Saito H, Frederick CA | title = Crystal structure of the tandem phosphatase domains of RPTP LAR. | journal = Cell | volume = 97 | issue = 4 | pages = 449–57 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10338209 | doi = 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80755-2 }}</ref> or in an inhibited conformation that leaves the catalytic domain inaccessible, in the case of CD45,<ref name="pmid9417031">{{cite journal | vauthors = Majeti R, Bilwes AM, Noel JP, Hunter T, Weiss A | title = Dimerization-induced inhibition of receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase function through an inhibitory wedge | journal = Science | volume = 279 | issue = 5347 | pages = 88–91 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9417031 | doi = 10.1126/science.279.5347.88 }}</ref> PTPalpha,<ref name="pmid8700232">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bilwes AM, den Hertog J, Hunter T, Noel JP | title = Structural basis for inhibition of receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase-alpha by dimerization. | journal = Nature | volume = 382 | issue = 6591 | pages = 555–9 | year = 1996 | pmid = 8700232 | doi = 10.1038/382555a0 }}</ref> and PTPzeta/beta.<ref name="pmid10706604">{{cite journal | vauthors = Meng K, Rodriguez-Peña A, Dimitrov T, Chen W, Yamin M, Noda M, Deuel TF | title = Pleiotrophin signals increased tyrosine phosphorylation of beta beta-catenin through inactivation of the intrinsic catalytic activity of the receptor-type protein tyrosine phosphatase beta/zeta. | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A | volume = 97 | issue = 6 | pages = 2603–8 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10706604 | pmc = 15975 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.020487997 }}</ref> The binding of different parts of the protein with itself (ex. by folding to interact with itself), known as intramolecular interactions, can affect the activity of RPTPs.  The cytoplasmic domains of different RPTPs can interact<ref name="pmid10777529">{{cite journal | vauthors = Blanchetot C, den Hertog J | title = Multiple interactions between receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase (RPTP) alpha and membrane-distal protein-tyrosine phosphatase domains of various RPTPs. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 275 | issue = 17 | pages = 12446–52 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10777529 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.275.17.12446 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12376545">{{cite journal | vauthors = Blanchetot C, Tertoolen LG, Overvoorde J, den Hertog J | title = Intra- and intermolecular interactions between intracellular domains of receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatases. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 277 | issue = 49 | pages = 47263–9 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12376545 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M205810200 }}</ref> to yield heterodimers of RPTP proteins, which then influence catalytic activity (for example, see <ref name="pmid12364328">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gross S, Blanchetot C, Schepens J, Albet S, Lammers R, den Hertog J, Hendriks W | title = Multimerization of the protein-tyrosine phosphatase (PTP)-like insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus autoantigens IA-2 and IA-2beta with receptor PTPs (RPTPs). Inhibition of RPTPalpha enzymatic activity. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 277 | issue = 50 | pages = 48139–45 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12364328 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M208228200 }}</ref>).
*{{cite journal | author=Hoffmann KM, Tonks NK, Barford D |title=The crystal structure of domain 1 of receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase mu. |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=272 |issue= 44 |pages= 27505-8 |year= 1997 |pmid= 9346878 |doi= }}
 
*{{cite journal | author=Brady-Kalnay SM, Mourton T, Nixon JP, ''et al.'' |title=Dynamic interaction of PTPmu with multiple cadherins in vivo. |journal=J. Cell Biol. |volume=141 |issue= 1 |pages= 287-96 |year= 1998 |pmid= 9531566 |doi= }}
The regulation of PTPmu catalytic activity is complex.  Like most RPTPs, the membrane proximal (or D1) phosphatase domain of PTPmu is catalytically active.<ref name="pmid7504951">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gebbink MF, Verheijen MH, Zondag GC, van Etten I, Moolenaar WH | title = Purification and characterization of the cytoplasmic domain of human receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase RPTP mu. | journal = Biochemistry | volume = 32 | issue = 49 | pages = 13516–22 | year = 1993 | pmid = 7504951 | doi = 10.1021/bi00212a017 }}</ref>  At high cell density, when PTPmu molecules bind to one another homophilically, phosphotyrosine levels are decreased.<ref name="pmid7559782">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gebbink MF, Zondag GC, Koningstein GM, Feiken E, Wubbolts RW, Moolenaar WH | title = Cell surface expression of receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase RPTP mu is regulated by cell–cell contact. | journal = J Cell Biol | volume = 131 | issue = 1 | pages = 251–60 | year = 1995 | pmid = 7559782 | pmc = 2120594 | doi = 10.1083/jcb.131.1.251 }}</ref>  This suggests that PTPmu may be catalytically active at high cell density. Substrates of PTPmu (proteins that are dephosphorylated by PTPmu), such as [[CTNND1|p120catenin]], tend to be dephosphorylated at high cell density,<ref name="pmid10753936">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zondag GC, Reynolds AB, Moolenaar WH | title = Receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase RPTPmu binds to and dephosphorylates the catenin p120(ctn). | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 275 | issue = 15 | pages = 11264–9 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10753936 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.275.15.11264 }}</ref> supporting the hypothesis that PTPmu is catalytically active when bound homophilically. PTPmu is constitutively dimerized due to its extracellular domain.<ref name="pmid18422654">{{cite journal | vauthors = Groen A, Overvoorde J, van der Wijk T, den Hertog J | title = Redox regulation of dimerization of the receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatases RPTPalpha, LAR, RPTPmu and CD45 | journal = FEBS J | volume = 275 | issue = 10 | pages = 2597–604 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18422654 | doi = 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06407.x }}</ref>
*{{cite journal | author=Serra-Pagès C, Medley QG, Tang M, ''et al.'' |title=Liprins, a family of LAR transmembrane protein-tyrosine phosphatase-interacting proteins. |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=273 |issue= 25 |pages= 15611-20 |year= 1998 |pmid= 9624153 |doi= }}
*{{cite journal | author=Bianchi C, Sellke FW, Del Vecchio RL, ''et al.'' |title=Receptor-type protein-tyrosine phosphatase mu is expressed in specific vascular endothelial beds in vivo. |journal=Exp. Cell Res. |volume=248 |issue= 1 |pages= 329-38 |year= 1999 |pmid= 10094839 |doi= 10.1006/excr.1999.4428 }}
Crystal structure analysis of the D1 of PTPmu demonstrated that PTPmu dimers are in an open active conformation.<ref name="pmid9346878"/>  Even though PTPmu dimers may be active, an additional study suggests that the extracellular domain of PTPmu reduces phosphatase activity.  In this study, it was shown that the cytoplasmic domain of PTPmu (a PTPmu molecule lacking the extracellular domain) has greater phosphatase activity than the full-length protein in an enzymatic phosphatase assay.<ref name="pmid7935345">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brady-Kalnay SM, Tonks NK | title = Purification and characterization of the human protein tyrosine phosphatase, PTP mu, from a baculovirus expression system | journal = Mol Cell Biochem | volume = 127-128 | issue =  | pages = 131–41 | year = 1993 | pmid = 7935345 | doi = 10.1007/BF01076764 }}</ref>
*{{cite journal | author=Zondag GC, Reynolds AB, Moolenaar WH |title=Receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase RPTPmu binds to and dephosphorylates the catenin p120(ctn). |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=275 |issue= 15 |pages= 11264-9 |year= 2000 |pmid= 10753936 |doi= }}
 
*{{cite journal | author=Blanchetot C, den Hertog J |title=Multiple interactions between receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase (RPTP) alpha and membrane-distal protein-tyrosine phosphatase domains of various RPTPs. |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=275 |issue= 17 |pages= 12446-52 |year= 2000 |pmid= 10777529 |doi= }}
PTPmu has a long juxtamembrane domain, which likely influences catalytic activity.  The juxtamembrane domain of PTPmu can bind to either the D1 and/or D2 of PTPmu, but only within the same PTPmu monomer.<ref name="pmid10809770">{{cite journal | vauthors = Feiken E, van Etten I, Gebbink MF, Moolenaar WH, Zondag GC | title = Intramolecular interactions between the juxtamembrane domain and phosphatase domains of receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase RPTPmu. Regulation of catalytic activity. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 275 | issue = 20 | pages = 15350–6 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10809770 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.275.20.15350 }}</ref>  Removal of the juxtamembrane domain from PTPmu has been suggested to reduce PTPmu phosphatase activity.<ref name="pmid7504951"/>  The D2 domain of PTPmu also regulates its activity.  Although originally demonstrated to positively regulate phosphatase activity,<ref name="pmid7504951"/> the D2 domain has been shown to negatively affect PTPmu catalytic activity.<ref name="pmid11162517">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aricescu AR, Fulga TA, Cismasiu V, Goody RS, Szedlacsek SE | title = Intramolecular interactions in protein tyrosine phosphatase RPTPmu: kinetic evidence. | journal = Biochem Biophys Res Commun | volume = 280 | issue = 1 | pages = 319–27 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11162517 | doi = 10.1006/bbrc.2000.4094 }}</ref>  A wedge-shaped motif located by D1 also regulates catalytic activity.<ref name="pmid16613844">{{cite journal | vauthors = Xie Y, Massa SM, Ensslen-Craig SE, Major DL, Yang T, Tisi MA, Derevyanny VD, Runge WO, Mehta BP, Moore LA, Brady-Kalnay SM, Longo FM | title = Protein-tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) wedge domain peptides: a novel approach for inhibition of PTP function and augmentation of protein-tyrosine kinase function. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 281 | issue = 24 | pages = 16482–92 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16613844 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M603131200 }}</ref>  Use of a peptide with the same sequence as the wedge motif inhibits PTPmu mediated functions.<ref name="pmid16613844"/><ref name="pmid17276081">{{cite journal | vauthors = Oblander SA, Ensslen-Craig SE, Longo FM, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = E-cadherin promotes retinal ganglion cell neurite outgrowth in a protein tyrosine phosphatase-mu-dependent manner. | journal = Mol Cell Neurosci | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 481–92 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17276081 | pmc = 1853338 | doi = 10.1016/j.mcn.2006.12.002 }}</ref><ref name="pmid20197094">{{cite journal | vauthors = Oblander SA, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = Distinct PTPmu-associated signaling molecules differentially regulate neurite outgrowth on E-, N-, and R-cadherin. | journal = Mol Cell Neurosci | volume = 44 | issue = 1 | pages = 78–93 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20197094 | pmc = 2881835 | doi = 10.1016/j.mcn.2010.02.005 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19690139">{{cite journal | vauthors = Burgoyne AM, Phillips-Mason PJ, Burden-Gulley SM, Robinson S, Sloan AE, Miller RH, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = Proteolytic cleavage of protein tyrosine phosphatase mu regulates glioblastoma cell migration. | journal = Cancer Res | volume = 69 | issue = 17 | pages = 6960–8 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19690139 | pmc = 2747800 | doi = 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-09-0863 }}</ref>
*{{cite journal | author=Feiken E, van Etten I, Gebbink MF, ''et al.'' |title=Intramolecular interactions between the juxtamembrane domain and phosphatase domains of receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase RPTPmu. Regulation of catalytic activity. |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=275 |issue= 20 |pages= 15350-6 |year= 2000 |pmid= 10809770 |doi= }}
 
*{{cite journal | author=Mourton T, Hellberg CB, Burden-Gulley SM, ''et al.'' |title=The PTPmu protein-tyrosine phosphatase binds and recruits the scaffolding protein RACK1 to cell-cell contacts. |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=276 |issue= 18 |pages= 14896-901 |year= 2001 |pmid= 11278757 |doi= 10.1074/jbc.M010823200 }}
Certain stimuli may also influence PTP activity.  For example, alteration of cell oxidation induces conformational changes in the cytoplasmic domain of PTPmu, which may affect its tyrosine phosphatase activity or binding of extracellular ligands.<ref name="pmid18422654"/>
*{{cite journal | author=Hellberg CB, Burden-Gulley SM, Pietz GE, Brady-Kalnay SM |title=Expression of the receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase, PTPmu, restores E-cadherin-dependent adhesion in human prostate carcinoma cells. |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=277 |issue= 13 |pages= 11165-73 |year= 2002 |pmid= 11801604 |doi= 10.1074/jbc.M112157200 }}
 
*{{cite journal | author=Blanchetot C, Tertoolen LG, Overvoorde J, den Hertog J |title=Intra- and intermolecular interactions between intracellular domains of receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatases. |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=277 |issue= 49 |pages= 47263-9 |year= 2003 |pmid= 12376545 |doi= 10.1074/jbc.M205810200 }}
== Cadherin-dependent adhesion ==
*{{cite journal | author=Strausberg RL, Feingold EA, Grouse LH, ''et al.'' |title=Generation and initial analysis of more than 15,000 full-length human and mouse cDNA sequences. |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=99 |issue= 26 |pages= 16899-903 |year= 2003 |pmid= 12477932 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.242603899 }}
 
*{{cite journal | author=Koop EA, Lopes SM, Feiken E, ''et al.'' |title=Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase mu expression as a marker for endothelial cell heterogeneity; analysis of RPTPmu gene expression using LacZ knock-in mice. |journal=Int. J. Dev. Biol. |volume=47 |issue= 5 |pages= 345-54 |year= 2004 |pmid= 12895029 |doi= }}
Classical [[cadherins]] are important proteins for cells to bind in the body (‘’in vivo’’) where they commonly stabilize cell–cell junctions known as adherens junctions.  Cadherins stabilize adherens junctions through the interaction of the cadherin cytoplasmic domains with catenin proteins, such as [[CTNND1|p120-catenin]], [[beta-catenin]] and [[alpha-catenin]].  [[Catenins]], in turn, bind to the actin cytoskeleton.  Binding of these proteins to the actin cytoskeleton prevents actin from growing (a process known as polymerization) and therefore keeps cells stationary.  Cadherins regulate cell–cell adhesion during development of the body and in adult tissue.  Disruption of cadherin proteins, by genetic alteration or by changes to the structure or function of the protein, has been linked to tumor progression.  Notably, PTPmu regulates the adhesion of cells to the classical cadherins.<ref name="pmid11801604">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hellberg CB, Burden-Gulley SM, Pietz GE, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = Expression of the receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase, PTPmu, restores E-cadherin-dependent adhesion in human prostate carcinoma cells | journal = J. Biol. Chem. | volume = 277 | issue = 13 | pages = 11165–73 | date = March 2002 | pmid = 11801604 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M112157200 }}</ref> PTPmu likely regulates cadherin-dependent adhesion by interacting with both cadherins and catenins via PTPmu’s cytoplasmic domain.  To support this assertion, PTPmu has been shown to interact with and/or dephosphorylate many signaling proteins involved in regulating the cadherin-catenin complex, including [[CTNND1|p120 catenin]],<ref name="pmid10753936"/> and E-cadherin ([[CDH1 (gene)]]) and N-cadherin ([[CDH2]]).<ref name="pmid7642713"/><ref name="pmid9531566">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brady-Kalnay SM, Mourton T, Nixon JP, Pietz GE, Kinch M, Chen H, Brackenbury R, Rimm DL, Del Vecchio RL, Tonks NK | title = Dynamic interaction of PTPmu with multiple cadherins in vivo. | journal = J Cell Biol | volume = 141 | issue = 1 | pages = 287–96 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9531566 | pmc = 2132733 | doi = 10.1083/jcb.141.1.287 }}</ref>  PTPmu has also been shown to interact with the [[c-Met]] hepatocyte growth factor receptor, a protein that is also localized to adherens junctions.<ref name="pmid10425198">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hiscox S, Jiang WG | title = Association of the HGF/SF receptor, c-met, with the cell-surface adhesion molecule, E-cadherin, and catenins in human tumor cells. | journal = Biochem Biophys Res Commun | volume = 261 | issue = 2 | pages = 406–11 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10425198 | doi = 10.1006/bbrc.1999.1002 }}</ref>  Although p120 catenin is a potential substrate of PTPmu,<ref name="pmid10753936"/> others have suggested that the interaction between PTPmu and catenins is only indirect through E-cadherin.<ref name="pmid9772302">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hiscox S, Jiang WG | title = Association of PTPmu with catenins in cancer cells: a possible role for E-cadherin. | journal = Int J Oncol | volume = 13 | issue = 5 | pages = 1077–80 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9772302 | pmc =  | doi = 10.3892/ijo.13.5.1077 }}</ref>  α3β1 integrin and the tetraspanin CD151 regulate PTPmu gene expression to promote E-cadherin-mediated cell–cell adhesion.<ref name="pmid14691142">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chattopadhyay N, Wang Z, Ashman LK, Brady-Kalnay SM, Kreidberg JA | title = alpha3beta1 integrin-CD151, a component of the cadherin-catenin complex, regulates PTPmu expression and cell–cell adhesion. | journal = J Cell Biol | volume = 163 | issue = 6 | pages = 1351–62 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14691142 | pmc = 2173722 | doi = 10.1083/jcb.200306067 }}</ref>
*{{cite journal | author=Del Vecchio RL, Tonks NK |title=The conserved immunoglobulin domain controls the subcellular localization of the homophilic adhesion receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase mu. |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=280 |issue= 2 |pages= 1603-12 |year= 2005 |pmid= 15491993 |doi= 10.1074/jbc.M410181200 }}
 
}}
In addition to catenins and cadherins, PTPmu dephosphorylates PIPKIγ90 and nectin-3 ([[PVRL3]]) to stabilize E-cadherin-based adherens junctions.<ref name="pmid17965016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sakamoto Y, Ogita H, Komura H, Takai Y | title = Involvement of nectin in inactivation of integrin alpha(v)beta(3) after the establishment of cell–cell adhesion. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 283 | issue = 1 | pages = 496–505 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17965016 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M704195200 }}</ref>  PTPmu also dephosphorylates another cell junction protein, [[connexin 43]].  The interaction between connexin 43 and PTPmu increases gap junction communication.<ref name="pmid14681016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Giepmans BN, Feiken E, Gebbink MF, Moolenaar WH | title = Association of connexin43 with a receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase. | journal = Cell Commun Adhes | volume = 10 | issue = 4-6 | pages = 201–5 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14681016 | doi = 10.1080/cac.10.4-6.201.205 }}</ref>
 
== Endothelial cell adhesion ==
 
PTPµ is expressed in human umbilical cord vein endothelial cells ([[human umbilical vein endothelial cell|HUVEC]])<ref name="pmid8620001">{{cite journal | vauthors = Campan M, Yoshizumi M, Seidah NG, Lee ME, Bianchi C, Haber E | title = Increased proteolytic processing of protein tyrosine phosphatase mu in confluent vascular endothelial cells: the role of PC5, a member of the subtilisin family. | journal = Biochemistry | volume = 35 | issue = 12 | pages = 3797–802 | year = 1996 | pmid = 8620001 | doi = 10.1021/bi952552d }}</ref> and in capillaries in the developing brain.<ref name="pmid8989520"/>  The expression of PTPµ in HUVEC cells increases at higher cell density.<ref name="pmid8620001"/>  Studies of PTPµ expression in animal tissues have demonstrated that PTPµ is preferentially expressed in endothelial cells of arteries and capillaries and in cardiac smooth muscle, in addition to brain cells.<ref name="pmid10094839"/><ref name="pmid12895029"/>  Because of this specialized expression in arterial endothelial cells, and because PTPµ is found to associate with proteins involved in maintaining endothelial cell–cell junctions, such as VE-cadherin,<ref name="pmid15793303">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sui XF, Kiser TD, Hyun SW, Angelini DJ, Del Vecchio RL, Young BA, Hasday JD, Romer LH, Passaniti A, Tonks NK, Goldblum SE | title = Receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase micro regulates the paracellular pathway in human lung microvascular endothelia. | journal = Am J Pathol | volume = 166 | issue = 4 | pages = 1247–58 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15793303 | pmc = 1602370 | doi = 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)62343-7 }}</ref>  PTPµ is hypothesized to regulate endothelial cell junction formation or permeability.  PTPµ has been shown to be involved in mechanotransduction that results from changes in blood flow to influence endothelial cell-mediated blood vessel dilation, a process induced by “shear stress.”<ref name="pmid15706045">{{cite journal | vauthors = Koop EA, Gebbink MF, Sweeney TE, Mathy MJ, Heijnen HF, Spaan JA, Voest EE, VanBavel E, Peters SL | title = Impaired flow-induced dilation in mesenteric resistance arteries from receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase-mu-deficient mice. | journal = Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol | volume = 288 | issue = 3 | pages = H1218-23 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15706045 | doi = 10.1152/ajpheart.00512.2004 }}</ref>  When PTPmu is missing in mice (PTPmu -/- knock-out mice), cannulated mesenteric arteries show reduced flow-induced (or “shear stress” induced) dilation.<ref name="pmid15706045"/>  PTPmu tyrosine phosphatase activity is activated by shear stress.<ref name="pmid16325778">{{cite journal | vauthors = Shin J, Jo H, Park H | title = Caveolin-1 is transiently dephosphorylated by shear stress-activated protein tyrosine phosphatase mu. | journal = Biochem Biophys Res Commun | volume = 339 | issue = 3 | pages = 737–41 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16325778 | doi = 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.11.077 }}</ref>  [[Caveolin 1]] is a scaffolding protein enriched in endothelial cell junctions that is also linked to shear stress regulated responses.<ref name="pmid16325778"/>  Caveolin 1 is dephosphorylated on tyrosine 14 in response to shear stress and PTPmu is hypothesized to catalyze this reaction.<ref name="pmid16325778"/>
 
== Cell migration ==
 
=== Neurite outgrowth ===
 
PTPmu is expressed in the developing brain and retina.<ref name="pmid10087273"/><ref name="pmid11978837"/><ref name="pmid14623235" /><ref name="pmid11085882"/><ref name="pmid10213455"/><ref name="pmid9510027">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fuchs M, Wang H, Ciossek T, Chen Z, Ullrich A | title = Differential expression of MAM-subfamily protein tyrosine phosphatases during mouse development. | journal = Mech Dev | volume = 70 | issue = 1-2 | pages = 91–109 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9510027 | doi = 10.1016/S0925-4773(97)00179-2 }}</ref>  A brain cell, or neuron, has a cell body that contains the nucleus and two types of extensions or processes that grow out from the cell body, the dendrites and axons.  Dendrites generally receive input from other neurons, while axons send output to adjacent neurons. These processes are called neurites when grown ‘’in vitro’’ on tissue culture plates, because it is not clear whether they are dendrites or axons. ‘’In vitro’’ growth studies are useful for evaluating the mechanisms that neurons use to grow and function.  A neurite outgrowth assay is a type of experiment where neurons are placed on different adhesive substrates on tissue culture plates.  A neurite outgrowth assay is meant to mimic how neurons grow inside the body. During development of the nervous system, neuronal axons reach their often-distant targets by reacting to different substrates in their environment, so-called guidance cues, that are attractive, repulsive or simply permissive, meaning these substrates pull axons toward them, away from them, or act in a way that allows growth, respectively. When PTPmu is applied to a dish as an ‘’in vitro’’ substrate, it promotes neurite outgrowth.<ref name="pmid10087273"/>  PTPmu also acts as a guidance cue during development of the nervous system, by repelling neurites of the temporal neural retina, while permitting growth of neurites from the nasal neural retina.<ref name="pmid11978837"/>  Expression of PTPmu protein capable of dephosphorylating tyrosine residues is required for mediating both nasal neurite outgrowth and temporal neurite repulsion.<ref name="pmid15607952">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ensslen-Craig SE, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = PTP mu expression and catalytic activity are required for PTP mu-mediated neurite outgrowth and repulsion. | journal = Mol Cell Neurosci | volume = 28 | issue = 1 | pages = 177–88 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15607952 | doi = 10.1016/j.mcn.2004.08.011 }}</ref>  By blocking the expression of PTPmu protein with antisense technology, or by expressing catalytically inactive mutants of PTPmu (molecules of PTPmu that can not dephosphorylate their target proteins) in the developing retina, it was shown that PTPmu is required for the development of the neural retina.<ref name="pmid14623235" />
 
PTPmu also regulates neurite outgrowth on classical cadherins. PTPmu tyrosine phosphatase activity is necessary for neurite outgrowth on the classical cadherins E-, N- and R-cadherin,<ref name="pmid10087273"/><ref name="pmid17276081"/><ref name="pmid20197094"/> suggesting that PTPmu dephosphorylates key components of the cadherin-catenin complex to regulate axonal migration.  Again, this emphasizes that PTPmu likely regulates cadherin-dependent processes via its cytoplasmic domain.
 
Various signals required for PTPmu-mediated neurite outgrowth and repulsion have been identified.  Some of these signals are proteins that interact with, or bind, to PTPmu, whereas, others may be dephosphorylated by PTPmu. PTPmu interacts with the scaffolding proteins RACK1/[[GNB2L1]],<ref name="pmid11278757">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mourton T, Hellberg CB, Burden-Gulley SM, Hinman J, Rhee A, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = The PTPmu protein-tyrosine phosphatase binds and recruits the scaffolding protein RACK1 to cell–cell contacts. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 276 | issue = 18 | pages = 14896–901 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11278757 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M010823200 }}</ref> and [[IQGAP1]].<ref name="pmid16380380">{{cite journal | vauthors = Phillips-Mason PJ, Gates TJ, Major DL, Sacks DB, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = The receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase PTPmu interacts with IQGAP1. | journal = J Biol Chem | volume = 281 | issue = 8 | pages = 4903–10 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16380380 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M506414200 }}</ref>  IQGAP1 is a scaffold for [[Rho family of GTPases]], [[E-cadherin]], [[beta-catenin]] and other proteins.  IQGAP1 binding to Rho GTPases is necessary for PTPmu-mediated neurite outgrowth.<ref name="pmid16380380"/>  The growing tip of the neuron, the growth cone, has a distinct appearance depending on what signals are activated inside the growth cone when it touches different substrates.  The morphology of the growth cones on PTPmu and the repulsion of temporal neurites are both regulated by the Rho GTPase family member, Cdc42.<ref name="pmid12884260">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rosdahl JA, Ensslen SE, Niedenthal JA, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = PTP mu-dependent growth cone rearrangement is regulated by Cdc42. | journal = J Neurobiol | volume = 56 | issue = 3 | pages = 199–208 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12884260 | doi = 10.1002/neu.10231 }}</ref><ref name="pmid17234431">{{cite journal | vauthors = Major DL, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = Rho GTPases regulate PTPmu-mediated nasal neurite outgrowth and temporal repulsion of retinal ganglion cell neurons. | journal = Mol Cell Neurosci | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 453–67 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17234431 | pmc = 185529 | doi = 10.1016/j.mcn.2006.11.022 }}</ref>  Inhibition of the Rho GTPase Rac1 permitted neurite outgrowth on PTPmu from neurons in the temporal retina.<ref name="pmid17234431"/>
 
The proteins PLCγ1 ([[PLCG1]]), PKCδ ([[PRKCD]]) and [[BCCIP]] are PTPmu substrates.<ref name="pmid20506511">{{cite journal | vauthors = Phillips-Mason PJ, Kaur H, Burden-Gulley SM, Craig SE, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = Identification of phospholipase C gamma1 as a protein tyrosine phosphatase mu substrate that regulates cell migration. | journal = J Cell Biochem | volume = 112 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–48 | year = 2011 | pmid = 20506511 | pmc = 3031780 | doi = 10.1002/jcb.22710 }}</ref>  PKCδ activity is required for PTPmu mediated neurite outgrowth<ref name="pmid11860281">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rosdahl JA, Mourton TL, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = Protein kinase C delta (PKCdelta) is required for protein tyrosine phosphatase mu (PTPmu)-dependent neurite outgrowth. | journal = Mol Cell Neurosci | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 292–306 | year = 2002 | pmid = 11860281 | doi = 10.1006/mcne.2001.1071 }}</ref> and PTPmu-mediated neurite repulsion.<ref name="pmid15080886">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ensslen SE, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = PTPmu signaling via PKCdelta is instructive for retinal ganglion cell guidance. | journal = Mol Cell Neurosci | volume = 25 | issue = 4 | pages = 558–71 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15080886 | doi = 10.1016/j.mcn.2003.12.003 }}</ref>  Expression of BCCIP is necessary for PTPmu-mediated neurite outgrowth.<ref name="pmid18773424">{{cite journal | vauthors = Phillips-Mason PJ, Mourton T, Major DL, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = BCCIP associates with the receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase PTPmu. | journal = J Cell Biochem | volume = 105 | issue = 4 | pages = 1059–72 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18773424 | pmc = 2758318 | doi = 10.1002/jcb.21907 }}</ref>  PTPmu is cleaved in certain brain cancers, which results in nuclear translocation of the cytoplasmic domain of PTPmu (see below).  A possible function for the BCCIP-PTPmu interaction may be to shuttle the intracellular PTPmu fragment into the cell nucleus.
In summary, PTPmu dephosphorylates PKCδ, PLCγ1, and BCCIP, and binds to IQGAP1.  The expression and/or activity of all these proteins and Cdc42 is necessary for PTPmu-mediated neurite outgrowth.  Also, the activity of the GTPase Rac1 promotes PTPmu-mediated neurite repulsion.
 
=== Cancer ===
 
PTPmu is downregulated in [[glioblastoma multiforme]] (GBM) cells and tissue compared to normal control tissue or cells.<ref name="pmid19304959">{{cite journal | vauthors = Burgoyne AM, Palomo JM, Phillips-Mason PJ, Burden-Gulley SM, Major DL, Zaremba A, Robinson S, Sloan AE, Vogelbaum MA, Miller RH, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = PTPmu suppresses glioma cell migration and dispersal | journal = Neuro-oncology | volume = 11 | issue = 6 | pages = 767–78 | date = December 2009 | pmid = 19304959 | pmc = 2802397 | doi = 10.1215/15228517-2009-019 }}</ref>  The reduction in PTPmu expression in GBM cells has been linked to increased migration of GBM cells.<ref name="pmid19304959"/><ref name="urlNIH ">{{cite web | url = http://www.nih.gov/news/health/aug2009/ninds-18.htm | title = NIH Researchers Identify Key Factor that Stimulates Brain Cancer Cells to Spread  | author = | date = 2009-08-18 | work = News Release | publisher = National Institutes of Health (NIH) | accessdate = 2011-07-21 }}</ref>
<ref name = "Talan_2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Talan J | title = Investigators Close in on Molecular Target for Glioblastoma Multiforme | journal=Neurology Today|date=2 October 2009 | volume = 9 | issue = 19 | pages = 18 | doi = 10.1097/01.NT.0000363214.03849.0e}}</ref><ref name="urlFirst, cure cancer. Second, build an iPhone app">{{cite web | url = http://www.medcitynews.com/2009/08/first-cure-cancer-second-build-an-iphone-app/ | title = First, cure cancer. Second, build an iPhone app | author = Seper C | date = 2009-08-18 | work = | publisher = MedCity News | accessdate = 2011-07-21 }}</ref>  It was found that PTPmu expression is decreased in GBM cells by proteolysis of the full-length protein into a shed extracellular fragment<ref name="pmid20360941">{{cite journal | vauthors = Burden-Gulley SM, Gates TJ, Burgoyne AM, Cutter JL, Lodowski DT, Robinson S, Sloan AE, Miller RH, Basilion JP, Brady-Kalnay SM | title = A novel molecular diagnostic of glioblastomas: detection of an extracellular fragment of protein tyrosine phosphatase mu. | journal = Neoplasia | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 305–16 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20360941 | pmc = 2847738 | doi =  }}</ref> and a cytoplasmically released intracellular fragment that is capable of translocating into the nucleus.<ref name="pmid19690139"/> Cleavage of PTPmu is similar to that identified for the [[Notch signaling pathway]].  PTPmu is first cleaved to yield two non-covalently associated fragments,<ref name="pmid7961788"/><ref name="pmid7559782"/> likely via a furin-like endo-peptidase in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), as has been demonstrated for another RPTP, LAR (or [[PTPRF]]).<ref name="pmid1547787">{{cite journal | vauthors = Streuli M, Krueger NX, Ariniello PD, Tang M, Munro JM, Blattler WA, Adler DA, Disteche CM, Saito H | title = Expression of the receptor-linked protein tyrosine phosphatase LAR: proteolytic cleavage and shedding of the CAM-like extracellular region | journal = EMBO J. | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | pages = 897–907 | date = March 1992 | pmid = 1547787 | pmc = 556530 | doi =  }}</ref><ref name="pmid1317540">{{cite journal | vauthors = Yu Q, Lenardo T, Weinberg RA | title = The N-terminal and C-terminal domains of a receptor tyrosine phosphatase are associated by non-covalent linkage | journal = Oncogene | volume = 7 | issue = 6 | pages = 1051–7 | date = June 1992 | pmid = 1317540 | doi =  }}</ref>  Then PTPmu is likely cleaved by an [[A disintegrin and metalloproteinase]] (ADAM) protease in the extracellular domain of PTPmu to release the shed extracellular fragment, then by the [[gamma secretase]] complex in the transmembrane domain to release the PTPmu intracellular fragment (reviewed in <ref name="pmid21084269"/> and <ref name="pmid21235433"/> Cleavage of PTPmu would likely impact the signaling partners that PTPmu would have access to, as has been proposed. (Phillips-Mason, Craig and Brady-Kalnay, 2011). PLCγ1 is a PTPmu substrate.<ref name="pmid20506511"/> PLCγ1 activity is necessary for mediating GBM cell migration in the absence of PTPmu,<ref name="pmid20506511"/> thus it seems likely that PTPmu dephosphorylation of PLCγ1 prevents PLCγ1-mediated migration. Cleavage of [[cell adhesion molecules]], like PTPmu, has also been linked to the deregulation of [[contact inhibition]] of growth observed in cancer cells.<ref name="pmid21084269"/>  Visualization of the shed extracellular fragment of PTPmu has been proposed to be an effective means of delineating the borders of a GBM tumor ‘’in vivo.’’<ref name="pmid20360941"/>  Fluorescently tagged PTPmu peptides that bind homophilically to the shed PTPmu extracellular domains are capable of crossing the blood–brain barrier and identifying tumor margins in rodent models of GBM.<ref name="pmid20360941"/>
 
== Interactions ==
 
PTPRM has been shown to [[Protein-protein interaction|interact]] with:
* [[BCCIP]],<ref name="pmid18773424"/>
* [[c-Met]],<ref name="pmid10425198"/>
* [[CDH1 (gene)|CDH1]] E-cadherin (Cadherin-1),<ref name="pmid7642713"/><ref name="pmid9531566"/>
* [[CDH2]] N-cadherin (Cadherin-2),<ref name="pmid7642713"/><ref name="pmid9531566"/>
* [[CDH4]] R-cadherin (cadherin-4),<ref name="pmid9531566"/>
* [[VE-cadherin|CDH5]] VE-cadherin (cadherin 5, CDH5),<ref name="pmid15793303"/>
* [[CTNND1]] (p120catenin),<ref name="pmid10753936"/>
* [[GNB2L1]]/RACK1,<ref name="pmid11278757"/>
* [[gap junction protein, alpha 1|GJA1]] connexin43 (gap junction protein, alpha 1),<ref name="pmid14681016" />
* [[IQGAP1]],<ref name="pmid16380380"/>
* [[PVRL3]] (nectin3),<ref name="pmid17965016"/>
* PIPKIγ90,<ref name="pmid17965016"/>
* [[PRKCD]] (PKCδ),<ref name="pmid20506511"/> and
* [[PLCG1]] (PLCγ1).<ref name="pmid20506511"/>
 
== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=35em}}
 
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|colwidth=35em}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Serra-Pagès C, Medley QG, Tang M, Hart A, Streuli M | title = Liprins, a family of LAR transmembrane protein-tyrosine phosphatase-interacting proteins | journal = J. Biol. Chem. | volume = 273 | issue = 25 | pages = 15611–20 | date = June 1998 | pmid = 9624153 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.273.25.15611 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Feiken E, van Etten I, Gebbink MF, Moolenaar WH, Zondag GC | title = Intramolecular interactions between the juxtamembrane domain and phosphatase domains of receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase RPTPmu. Regulation of catalytic activity | journal = J. Biol. Chem. | volume = 275 | issue = 20 | pages = 15350–6 | date = May 2000 | pmid = 10809770 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.275.20.15350 }}
{{refend}}
{{refend}}


{{protein-stub}}
{{PDB Gallery|geneid=5797}}
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{{Protein tyrosine phosphatases}}

Revision as of 18:58, 7 September 2017

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Receptor-type tyrosine-protein phosphatase mu is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PTPRM gene.[1][2][3]

Function

The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) family. Protein tyrosine phosphatases are protein enzymes that remove phosphate moieties from tyrosine residues on other proteins. Tyrosine kinases are enzymes that add phosphates to tyrosine residues, and are the opposing enzymes to PTPs. PTPs are known to be signaling molecules that regulate a variety of cellular processes including cell growth, differentiation, mitotic cycle, and oncogenic transformation. PTPs can be both cytosolic and transmembrane.[4][5]

Structure

Transmembrane PTPs are known as receptor protein tyrosine phosphatases (RPTPs). RPTPs are single pass transmembrane proteins usually with one or two catalytic domains in their intracellular domain (the part of the protein that is inside the cell) and diverse extracellular structures (the part of the protein that is outside the cell).[6][7]

PTPmu possesses an extracellular region, a single transmembrane region, a 158 amino acid long juxtamembrane domain and two tandem tyrosine phosphatase domains (referred to as D1 and D2) in its intracellular domain, and thus represents an RPTP.[1]Only the membrane proximal phosphatase domain, D1, is catalytically active. The extracellular region contains a meprin-A5 antigen-PTP mu (MAM) domain, an Ig-like domain and four fibronectin type III-like repeats. There are other RPTPs that resemble PTPmu. These proteins are all grouped as type IIb RPTPs, and include PTPkappa (κ), PTPrho (ρ), and PCP-2. The structure of type IIb RPTPs classifies them as members of the immunoglobulin superfamily of cell adhesion molecules, in addition to being tyrosine phosphatases.[6][8] The structure of PTPmu suggests that it can regulate cell adhesion and migration using its extracellular cell adhesion molecule features, while also regulating the level of tyrosine phosphorylation inside of cells using its catalytic tyrosine phosphatase domain. A series of reviews have been written about RPTPs including PTPmu.[6][7][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17] PTPmu is expressed in different organ tissues in the body, including the lung, heart and brain,[18] pancreas,[19] endothelial cells in capillaries and arteries throughout the body,[20][21][22] and in retinal and brain cells.[23][24][25][26][27] PTPmu has been shown to increase the mRNA of the K+ channel Kv1.5 in cardiac myocytes when CHO cells expressing PTPmu are cultured with cardiac myocytes.[28]

Homophilic binding

PTPmu protein expressed on the surface of cells is able to mediate binding between two cells, which results in the clustering of the cells, known as cell–cell aggregation.[29][30] PTPmu accomplishes this by interacting with another PTPmu molecule on an adjacent cell, known as homophilic binding. The Ig domain of PTPmu is responsible for promoting homophilic binding.[31] The Ig domain is also responsible for localizing PTPmu to the plasma membrane surface of the cell.[32] The ability of closely related molecules like PTPmu and PTPkappa to separate themselves to associate only with their identically matched (homologous) molecules, known as sorting, is attributed to the MAM domain.[33] The MAM, Ig, and the first two FNIII repeats are the minimum extracellular domains required for efficient cell–cell adhesion.[31][32][33][34][35][36][37] Crystallographic studies demonstrated that the MAM and Ig domains are tightly associated into one functional entity.[35] Additional crystal structure analysis by Aricescu and colleagues predicted that the adhesive interface between two PTPµ proteins is between the MAM and Ig domains of one PTPµ protein interacts with the first and second FN III domains of the second PTPµ protein.[36] The type IIb RPTPs mediate adhesion, with the exception of PCP-2.[38]

Tyrosine phosphatase activity

There are a number of ways that RPTP catalytic activity can be regulated (for reviews, see [7][10][13][39]). Dimerization of identical RPTP proteins at the cell surface leaves the PTP domains either in an open active conformation, as in the case of PTPmu[40] and LAR,[41] or in an inhibited conformation that leaves the catalytic domain inaccessible, in the case of CD45,[42] PTPalpha,[43] and PTPzeta/beta.[44] The binding of different parts of the protein with itself (ex. by folding to interact with itself), known as intramolecular interactions, can affect the activity of RPTPs. The cytoplasmic domains of different RPTPs can interact[45][46] to yield heterodimers of RPTP proteins, which then influence catalytic activity (for example, see [47]).

The regulation of PTPmu catalytic activity is complex. Like most RPTPs, the membrane proximal (or D1) phosphatase domain of PTPmu is catalytically active.[48] At high cell density, when PTPmu molecules bind to one another homophilically, phosphotyrosine levels are decreased.[49] This suggests that PTPmu may be catalytically active at high cell density. Substrates of PTPmu (proteins that are dephosphorylated by PTPmu), such as p120catenin, tend to be dephosphorylated at high cell density,[50] supporting the hypothesis that PTPmu is catalytically active when bound homophilically. PTPmu is constitutively dimerized due to its extracellular domain.[51]

Crystal structure analysis of the D1 of PTPmu demonstrated that PTPmu dimers are in an open active conformation.[40] Even though PTPmu dimers may be active, an additional study suggests that the extracellular domain of PTPmu reduces phosphatase activity. In this study, it was shown that the cytoplasmic domain of PTPmu (a PTPmu molecule lacking the extracellular domain) has greater phosphatase activity than the full-length protein in an enzymatic phosphatase assay.[52]

PTPmu has a long juxtamembrane domain, which likely influences catalytic activity. The juxtamembrane domain of PTPmu can bind to either the D1 and/or D2 of PTPmu, but only within the same PTPmu monomer.[53] Removal of the juxtamembrane domain from PTPmu has been suggested to reduce PTPmu phosphatase activity.[48] The D2 domain of PTPmu also regulates its activity. Although originally demonstrated to positively regulate phosphatase activity,[48] the D2 domain has been shown to negatively affect PTPmu catalytic activity.[54] A wedge-shaped motif located by D1 also regulates catalytic activity.[55] Use of a peptide with the same sequence as the wedge motif inhibits PTPmu mediated functions.[55][56][57][58]

Certain stimuli may also influence PTP activity. For example, alteration of cell oxidation induces conformational changes in the cytoplasmic domain of PTPmu, which may affect its tyrosine phosphatase activity or binding of extracellular ligands.[51]

Cadherin-dependent adhesion

Classical cadherins are important proteins for cells to bind in the body (‘’in vivo’’) where they commonly stabilize cell–cell junctions known as adherens junctions. Cadherins stabilize adherens junctions through the interaction of the cadherin cytoplasmic domains with catenin proteins, such as p120-catenin, beta-catenin and alpha-catenin. Catenins, in turn, bind to the actin cytoskeleton. Binding of these proteins to the actin cytoskeleton prevents actin from growing (a process known as polymerization) and therefore keeps cells stationary. Cadherins regulate cell–cell adhesion during development of the body and in adult tissue. Disruption of cadherin proteins, by genetic alteration or by changes to the structure or function of the protein, has been linked to tumor progression. Notably, PTPmu regulates the adhesion of cells to the classical cadherins.[59] PTPmu likely regulates cadherin-dependent adhesion by interacting with both cadherins and catenins via PTPmu’s cytoplasmic domain. To support this assertion, PTPmu has been shown to interact with and/or dephosphorylate many signaling proteins involved in regulating the cadherin-catenin complex, including p120 catenin,[50] and E-cadherin (CDH1 (gene)) and N-cadherin (CDH2).[18][60] PTPmu has also been shown to interact with the c-Met hepatocyte growth factor receptor, a protein that is also localized to adherens junctions.[61] Although p120 catenin is a potential substrate of PTPmu,[50] others have suggested that the interaction between PTPmu and catenins is only indirect through E-cadherin.[62] α3β1 integrin and the tetraspanin CD151 regulate PTPmu gene expression to promote E-cadherin-mediated cell–cell adhesion.[63]

In addition to catenins and cadherins, PTPmu dephosphorylates PIPKIγ90 and nectin-3 (PVRL3) to stabilize E-cadherin-based adherens junctions.[64] PTPmu also dephosphorylates another cell junction protein, connexin 43. The interaction between connexin 43 and PTPmu increases gap junction communication.[65]

Endothelial cell adhesion

PTPµ is expressed in human umbilical cord vein endothelial cells (HUVEC)[66] and in capillaries in the developing brain.[20] The expression of PTPµ in HUVEC cells increases at higher cell density.[66] Studies of PTPµ expression in animal tissues have demonstrated that PTPµ is preferentially expressed in endothelial cells of arteries and capillaries and in cardiac smooth muscle, in addition to brain cells.[21][22] Because of this specialized expression in arterial endothelial cells, and because PTPµ is found to associate with proteins involved in maintaining endothelial cell–cell junctions, such as VE-cadherin,[67] PTPµ is hypothesized to regulate endothelial cell junction formation or permeability. PTPµ has been shown to be involved in mechanotransduction that results from changes in blood flow to influence endothelial cell-mediated blood vessel dilation, a process induced by “shear stress.”[68] When PTPmu is missing in mice (PTPmu -/- knock-out mice), cannulated mesenteric arteries show reduced flow-induced (or “shear stress” induced) dilation.[68] PTPmu tyrosine phosphatase activity is activated by shear stress.[69] Caveolin 1 is a scaffolding protein enriched in endothelial cell junctions that is also linked to shear stress regulated responses.[69] Caveolin 1 is dephosphorylated on tyrosine 14 in response to shear stress and PTPmu is hypothesized to catalyze this reaction.[69]

Cell migration

Neurite outgrowth

PTPmu is expressed in the developing brain and retina.[23][24][25][26][27][70] A brain cell, or neuron, has a cell body that contains the nucleus and two types of extensions or processes that grow out from the cell body, the dendrites and axons. Dendrites generally receive input from other neurons, while axons send output to adjacent neurons. These processes are called neurites when grown ‘’in vitro’’ on tissue culture plates, because it is not clear whether they are dendrites or axons. ‘’In vitro’’ growth studies are useful for evaluating the mechanisms that neurons use to grow and function. A neurite outgrowth assay is a type of experiment where neurons are placed on different adhesive substrates on tissue culture plates. A neurite outgrowth assay is meant to mimic how neurons grow inside the body. During development of the nervous system, neuronal axons reach their often-distant targets by reacting to different substrates in their environment, so-called guidance cues, that are attractive, repulsive or simply permissive, meaning these substrates pull axons toward them, away from them, or act in a way that allows growth, respectively. When PTPmu is applied to a dish as an ‘’in vitro’’ substrate, it promotes neurite outgrowth.[23] PTPmu also acts as a guidance cue during development of the nervous system, by repelling neurites of the temporal neural retina, while permitting growth of neurites from the nasal neural retina.[24] Expression of PTPmu protein capable of dephosphorylating tyrosine residues is required for mediating both nasal neurite outgrowth and temporal neurite repulsion.[71] By blocking the expression of PTPmu protein with antisense technology, or by expressing catalytically inactive mutants of PTPmu (molecules of PTPmu that can not dephosphorylate their target proteins) in the developing retina, it was shown that PTPmu is required for the development of the neural retina.[25]

PTPmu also regulates neurite outgrowth on classical cadherins. PTPmu tyrosine phosphatase activity is necessary for neurite outgrowth on the classical cadherins E-, N- and R-cadherin,[23][56][57] suggesting that PTPmu dephosphorylates key components of the cadherin-catenin complex to regulate axonal migration. Again, this emphasizes that PTPmu likely regulates cadherin-dependent processes via its cytoplasmic domain.

Various signals required for PTPmu-mediated neurite outgrowth and repulsion have been identified. Some of these signals are proteins that interact with, or bind, to PTPmu, whereas, others may be dephosphorylated by PTPmu. PTPmu interacts with the scaffolding proteins RACK1/GNB2L1,[72] and IQGAP1.[73] IQGAP1 is a scaffold for Rho family of GTPases, E-cadherin, beta-catenin and other proteins. IQGAP1 binding to Rho GTPases is necessary for PTPmu-mediated neurite outgrowth.[73] The growing tip of the neuron, the growth cone, has a distinct appearance depending on what signals are activated inside the growth cone when it touches different substrates. The morphology of the growth cones on PTPmu and the repulsion of temporal neurites are both regulated by the Rho GTPase family member, Cdc42.[74][75] Inhibition of the Rho GTPase Rac1 permitted neurite outgrowth on PTPmu from neurons in the temporal retina.[75]

The proteins PLCγ1 (PLCG1), PKCδ (PRKCD) and BCCIP are PTPmu substrates.[76] PKCδ activity is required for PTPmu mediated neurite outgrowth[77] and PTPmu-mediated neurite repulsion.[78] Expression of BCCIP is necessary for PTPmu-mediated neurite outgrowth.[79] PTPmu is cleaved in certain brain cancers, which results in nuclear translocation of the cytoplasmic domain of PTPmu (see below). A possible function for the BCCIP-PTPmu interaction may be to shuttle the intracellular PTPmu fragment into the cell nucleus. In summary, PTPmu dephosphorylates PKCδ, PLCγ1, and BCCIP, and binds to IQGAP1. The expression and/or activity of all these proteins and Cdc42 is necessary for PTPmu-mediated neurite outgrowth. Also, the activity of the GTPase Rac1 promotes PTPmu-mediated neurite repulsion.

Cancer

PTPmu is downregulated in glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) cells and tissue compared to normal control tissue or cells.[80] The reduction in PTPmu expression in GBM cells has been linked to increased migration of GBM cells.[80][81] [82][83] It was found that PTPmu expression is decreased in GBM cells by proteolysis of the full-length protein into a shed extracellular fragment[84] and a cytoplasmically released intracellular fragment that is capable of translocating into the nucleus.[58] Cleavage of PTPmu is similar to that identified for the Notch signaling pathway. PTPmu is first cleaved to yield two non-covalently associated fragments,[31][49] likely via a furin-like endo-peptidase in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), as has been demonstrated for another RPTP, LAR (or PTPRF).[85][86] Then PTPmu is likely cleaved by an A disintegrin and metalloproteinase (ADAM) protease in the extracellular domain of PTPmu to release the shed extracellular fragment, then by the gamma secretase complex in the transmembrane domain to release the PTPmu intracellular fragment (reviewed in [16] and [17] Cleavage of PTPmu would likely impact the signaling partners that PTPmu would have access to, as has been proposed. (Phillips-Mason, Craig and Brady-Kalnay, 2011). PLCγ1 is a PTPmu substrate.[76] PLCγ1 activity is necessary for mediating GBM cell migration in the absence of PTPmu,[76] thus it seems likely that PTPmu dephosphorylation of PLCγ1 prevents PLCγ1-mediated migration. Cleavage of cell adhesion molecules, like PTPmu, has also been linked to the deregulation of contact inhibition of growth observed in cancer cells.[16] Visualization of the shed extracellular fragment of PTPmu has been proposed to be an effective means of delineating the borders of a GBM tumor ‘’in vivo.’’[84] Fluorescently tagged PTPmu peptides that bind homophilically to the shed PTPmu extracellular domains are capable of crossing the blood–brain barrier and identifying tumor margins in rodent models of GBM.[84]

Interactions

PTPRM has been shown to interact with:

References

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Further reading

  • Serra-Pagès C, Medley QG, Tang M, Hart A, Streuli M (June 1998). "Liprins, a family of LAR transmembrane protein-tyrosine phosphatase-interacting proteins". J. Biol. Chem. 273 (25): 15611–20. doi:10.1074/jbc.273.25.15611. PMID 9624153.
  • Feiken E, van Etten I, Gebbink MF, Moolenaar WH, Zondag GC (May 2000). "Intramolecular interactions between the juxtamembrane domain and phosphatase domains of receptor protein-tyrosine phosphatase RPTPmu. Regulation of catalytic activity". J. Biol. Chem. 275 (20): 15350–6. doi:10.1074/jbc.275.20.15350. PMID 10809770.