Aortitis overview: Difference between revisions
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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
Aortitis is the [[inflammation]] of the aortic wall. The disorder is potentially life-threatening and | Aortitis is the [[inflammation]] of the aortic wall. The disorder is rare, but potentially life-threatening. Aortitis may occur at any age. Aortitis is classified according to the cause into 2 groups: inflammatory and infectious. Life threatening causes of aortitis include bacteremia and mycotic aneurysm. Common causes of aortitis include [[ankylosing spondylitis]], [[giant cell arteritis]], [[Takayasu arteritis]], and [[syphilis]]. Aortitis must be differentiated from [[aortic dissection]], intramural [[hematoma]], and penetrating atherosclerotic [[ulcer]].<ref name="pmid18541754">{{cite journal| author=Gornik HL, Creager MA| title=Aortitis. | journal=Circulation | year= 2008 | volume= 117 | issue= 23 | pages= 3039-51 | pmid=18541754 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.760686 | pmc=PMC2759760 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18541754}}Accessed on September 14th, 2015</ref> If left untreated, infectious aortitis is associated with a high rate of aortic rupture and subsequent mortality. Aortitis due to either [[giant cell arteritis]] or [[Takayasu arteritis]] has a high rate of recurrence despite therapy.<ref name="pmid18541754">{{cite journal| author=Gornik HL, Creager MA| title=Aortitis. | journal=Circulation | year= 2008 | volume= 117 | issue= 23 | pages= 3039-51 | pmid=18541754 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.760686 | pmc=PMC2759760 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18541754 }} </ref> Common complications of aortitis include: [[aortic aneurysm]], [[aortic rupture]], [[aortic dissection]], [[thrombus]] formation in the aortic lumen, and [[hypertension]]. The prognosis of infectious aortitis is generally poor. Prognosis of isolated aortitis and aortitis associated with rheumatic diseases is generally good with prompt diagnosis.<ref>{{Cite web | title =Isolated aortitis | url =http://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/isolated-aortitis/ }}Accessed on September 14th, 2015</ref> Symptoms of aortitis include [[back pain]], [[fever]], [[abdominal pain]], [[chest pain]], [[shortness of breath]], and [[fatigue]]. Common physical examination findings of aortitis include abnormal heart sounds, [[hypertension]] or [[hypotension]], a difference in blood pressure between both arms, and either reduced or absent [[pulses]].<ref>{{Cite web | title =Isolated Aortitis | url =http://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/isolated-aortitis/ Accessed on September 11th, 2015 }}</ref> [[CT scan]] with the administration of iodinated contrast (CTA) may be diagnostic of aortitis. Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is the noninvasive imaging of choice for aortitis. On transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiogram, aortitis is characterized by aortic wall thickening.<ref name="pmid9294676">{{cite journal| author=Harris KM, Malenka DJ, Plehn JF| title=Transesophageal echocardiographic evaluation of aortitis. | journal=Clin Cardiol | year= 1997 | volume= 20 | issue= 9 | pages= 813-5 | pmid=9294676 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9294676}}Accessed on September 14th, 2015</ref> Early antimicrobial therapy with broad spectrum coverage is indicated in infectious aortitis. The preferred agents include either [[Cefotaxime]], [[Ciprofloxacin]], [[Penicillin|penicillinase-resistant penicillins]], or [[Vancomycin]]. Surgical debridement is recommended among patients with gram-negative rod aortitis. | ||
==Classification== | ==Classification== | ||
Aortitis may be classified according to the cause into 2 groups: inflammatory and infectious<ref name=" | Aortitis may be classified according to the cause into 2 groups: inflammatory and infectious.<ref name="pmid18541754">{{cite journal | author = Gornik HL, Creager MA | title = Aortitis | journal = [[Circulation]] | volume = 117 | issue = 23 | pages = 3039–51 | year = 2008 | month = June | pmid = 18541754 | pmc = 2759760 | doi = 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.760686 | url = http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18541754 | issn = }}</ref><ref name="pmid10651596">{{cite journal | author = Bronze MS, Shirwany A, Corbett C, Schaberg DR | title = Infectious aortitis: an uncommon manifestation of infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae | journal = [[The American Journal of Medicine]] | volume = 107 | issue = 6 | pages = 627–30 | year = 1999 | month = December | pmid = 10651596 | doi = | url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0002-9343(99)00306-X | issn = }}</ref> | ||
==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
Aortitis is [[inflammation]] or [[infection]] of the aortic wall.<ref name="pmid18541754">{{cite journal| author=Gornik HL, Creager MA| title=Aortitis. | journal=Circulation | year= 2008 | volume= 117 | issue= 23 | pages= 3039-51 | pmid=18541754 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.760686 | pmc=PMC2759760 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18541754 }} </ref> On microscopic histopathological analysis, extensive intimal and adventitial [[fibrosis]] and scarring with | Aortitis is [[inflammation]] or [[infection]] of the aortic wall.<ref name="pmid18541754">{{cite journal| author=Gornik HL, Creager MA| title=Aortitis. | journal=Circulation | year= 2008 | volume= 117 | issue= 23 | pages= 3039-51 | pmid=18541754 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.760686 | pmc=PMC2759760 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18541754 }} </ref> On microscopic histopathological analysis, extensive intimal and adventitial [[fibrosis]] and scarring with luminal narrowing are characteristic findings of aortitis due to [[Takayasu arteritis]].<ref name="pmid18541754">{{cite journal| author=Gornik HL, Creager MA| title=Aortitis. | journal=Circulation | year= 2008 | volume= 117 | issue= 23 | pages= 3039-51 | pmid=18541754 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.760686 | pmc=PMC2759760 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18541754 }} </ref> Extensive medial [[inflammation]] and [[necrosis]] are characteristic findings on microscopic histopathological analysis of aortitis due to [[giant cell arteritis]].<ref name="pmid18541754">{{cite journal| author=Gornik HL, Creager MA| title=Aortitis. | journal=Circulation | year= 2008 | volume= 117 | issue= 23 | pages= 3039-51 | pmid=18541754 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.760686 | pmc=PMC2759760 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18541754 }} </ref> The majority of cases of infectious aortitis are due to [[bacteria]] seeding through a segment of the aortic wall with existing pathology via the [[vasa vasorum]]. | ||
==Causes== | ==Causes== | ||
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Aortitis must be differentiated from [[aortic dissection]], intramural [[hematoma]], and penetrating atherosclerotic [[ulcer]].<ref name="pmid18541754">{{cite journal| author=Gornik HL, Creager MA| title=Aortitis. | journal=Circulation | year= 2008 | volume= 117 | issue= 23 | pages= 3039-51 | pmid=18541754 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.760686 | pmc=PMC2759760 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18541754}}Accessed on September 14th, 2015</ref> | Aortitis must be differentiated from [[aortic dissection]], intramural [[hematoma]], and penetrating atherosclerotic [[ulcer]].<ref name="pmid18541754">{{cite journal| author=Gornik HL, Creager MA| title=Aortitis. | journal=Circulation | year= 2008 | volume= 117 | issue= 23 | pages= 3039-51 | pmid=18541754 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.760686 | pmc=PMC2759760 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18541754}}Accessed on September 14th, 2015</ref> | ||
==Natural History, Complications | ==Natural History, Complications and Prognosis== | ||
If left untreated, infectious aortitis is associated with a high rate of aortic rupture and subsequent mortality. Aortitis due to either [[giant cell arteritis]] or [[Takayasu arteritis]] has a high rate of recurrence despite therapy.<ref name="pmid18541754">{{cite journal| author=Gornik HL, Creager MA| title=Aortitis. | journal=Circulation | year= 2008 | volume= 117 | issue= 23 | pages= 3039-51 | pmid=18541754 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.760686 | pmc=PMC2759760 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18541754 }} </ref> Common complications of aortitis include: [[aortic aneurysm]], [[aortic rupture]], [[aortic dissection]], [[thrombus]] formation in the aortic lumen, and [[hypertension]]. The prognosis of infectious aortitis is generally poor. Prognosis of isolated aortitis and aortitis associated with rheumatic diseases is generally good with prompt diagnosis.<ref>{{Cite web | title =Isolated aortitis | url =http://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/isolated-aortitis/ }}Accessed on September 14th, 2015</ref> | If left untreated, infectious aortitis is associated with a high rate of aortic rupture and subsequent mortality. Aortitis due to either [[giant cell arteritis]] or [[Takayasu arteritis]] has a high rate of recurrence despite therapy.<ref name="pmid18541754">{{cite journal| author=Gornik HL, Creager MA| title=Aortitis. | journal=Circulation | year= 2008 | volume= 117 | issue= 23 | pages= 3039-51 | pmid=18541754 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.760686 | pmc=PMC2759760 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18541754 }} </ref> Common complications of aortitis include: [[aortic aneurysm]], [[aortic rupture]], [[aortic dissection]], [[thrombus]] formation in the aortic lumen, and [[hypertension]]. The prognosis of infectious aortitis is generally poor. Prognosis of isolated aortitis and aortitis associated with rheumatic diseases is generally good with prompt diagnosis.<ref>{{Cite web | title =Isolated aortitis | url =http://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/isolated-aortitis/ }}Accessed on September 14th, 2015</ref> | ||
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Common physical examination findings of aortitis include abnormal heart sounds, [[hypertension]] or [[hypotension]], a difference in blood pressure between both arms, and either reduced or absent [[pulses]].<ref>{{Cite web | title =Isolated Aortitis | url =http://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/isolated-aortitis/ Accessed on September 11th, 2015 }}</ref> | Common physical examination findings of aortitis include abnormal heart sounds, [[hypertension]] or [[hypotension]], a difference in blood pressure between both arms, and either reduced or absent [[pulses]].<ref>{{Cite web | title =Isolated Aortitis | url =http://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/isolated-aortitis/ Accessed on September 11th, 2015 }}</ref> | ||
===Laboratory Findings=== | ===Laboratory Findings=== | ||
Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of aortitis include elevated [[erythrocyte sedimentation rate]] and [[C-reactive protein]].<ref>{{Cite web | title = Aortitis| url =http://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/isolated-aortitis/}}Accessed on September 11th, 2015</ref | Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of aortitis include elevated [[erythrocyte sedimentation rate]] and [[C-reactive protein]].<ref>{{Cite web | title = Aortitis| url =http://www.vasculitisfoundation.org/isolated-aortitis/}}Accessed on September 11th, 2015</ref> | ||
===CT=== | |||
[[CT scan]] with the administration of iodinated contrast (CTA) may be diagnostic of aortitis. Findings on CT suggestive of aortitis include thickening of the aortic wall and periaortic [[inflammation]]. CT scan may also be helpful in the diagnosis of the complications of aortitis. Findings on CT suggestive of complications of aortitis include aortic and arterial [[calcification]], stenotic lesions of the aorta, [[aortic aneurysm]], and luminal [[thrombus]].<ref name="pmid18541754">{{cite journal| author=Gornik HL, Creager MA| title=Aortitis. | journal=Circulation | year= 2008 | volume= 117 | issue= 23 | pages= 3039-51 | pmid=18541754 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.760686 | pmc=PMC2759760 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18541754}}Accessed on September 14th, 2015</ref> | |||
===MRI=== | |||
Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is the noninvasive imaging of choice for aortitis. On MRA, aortitis is characterized by [[stenoses]] at multiple levels, | |||
mural thrombi, and thickening of [[aortic valve]] cusps. | |||
===Echocardiography and Ultrasound=== | |||
On transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiogram, aortitis is characterized by aortic wall thickening.<ref name="pmid9294676">{{cite journal| author=Harris KM, Malenka DJ, Plehn JF| title=Transesophageal echocardiographic evaluation of aortitis. | journal=Clin Cardiol | year= 1997 | volume= 20 | issue= 9 | pages= 813-5 | pmid=9294676 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9294676}}Accessed on September 14th, 2015</ref> Echocardiography may also be helpful in the assessment of aortic root and aortic valve involvement in aortitis.<ref name="pmid18541754">{{cite journal| author=Gornik HL, Creager MA| title=Aortitis. | journal=Circulation | year= 2008 | volume= 117 | issue= 23 | pages= 3039-51 | pmid=18541754 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.760686 | pmc=PMC2759760 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18541754}}Accessed on September 14th, 2015</ref> Findings on ultrasound suggestive of [[Takayasu arteritis]] include extensive concentric thickening of affected aorta and branch vessels.<ref name="pmid24925329">{{cite journal| author=Hartlage GR, Palios J, Barron BJ, Stillman AE, Bossone E, Clements SD et al.| title=Multimodality imaging of aortitis. | journal=JACC Cardiovasc Imaging | year= 2014 | volume= 7 | issue= 6 | pages= 605-19 | pmid=24925329 | doi=10.1016/j.jcmg.2014.04.002 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24925329 }} </ref> Findings on ultrasound suggestive of [[giant cell arteritis]] include a "halo" sign, aortic wall thickening, and small [[aneurysm]]s.<ref name="pmid18541754">{{cite journal| author=Gornik HL, Creager MA| title=Aortitis. | journal=Circulation | year= 2008 | volume= 117 | issue= 23 | pages= 3039-51 | pmid=18541754 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.760686 | pmc=PMC2759760 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18541754}}Accessed on September 14th, 2015</ref> | |||
==Treatment== | ==Treatment== | ||
===Medical Therapy=== | |||
Early antimicrobial therapy with broad spectrum coverage is indicated in infectious aortitis. The preferred agents include either [[Cefotaxime]], [[Ciprofloxacin]], [[Penicillin|penicillinase-resistant penicillins]], or [[Vancomycin]]. | |||
== | ===Surgical Therapy=== | ||
Surgical debridement is recommended among patients with gram-negative rod aortitis. | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist|2}} | {{Reflist|2}} | ||
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[[Category:Cardiology]] | [[Category:Cardiology]] | ||
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[[Category:Mature chapter]] | [[Category:Mature chapter]] | ||
[[Category:Medicine]] | [[Category:Medicine]] | ||
[[Category:Up-To-Date]] | [[Category:Up-To-Date]] | ||
[[Category:Up-To-Date cardiology]] | [[Category:Up-To-Date cardiology]] | ||
Latest revision as of 20:27, 29 July 2020
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Aortitis overview On the Web |
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American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Aortitis overview |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [2] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Maliha Shakil, M.D. [3]
Overview
Aortitis is the inflammation of the aortic wall. The disorder is rare, but potentially life-threatening. Aortitis may occur at any age. Aortitis is classified according to the cause into 2 groups: inflammatory and infectious. Life threatening causes of aortitis include bacteremia and mycotic aneurysm. Common causes of aortitis include ankylosing spondylitis, giant cell arteritis, Takayasu arteritis, and syphilis. Aortitis must be differentiated from aortic dissection, intramural hematoma, and penetrating atherosclerotic ulcer.[1] If left untreated, infectious aortitis is associated with a high rate of aortic rupture and subsequent mortality. Aortitis due to either giant cell arteritis or Takayasu arteritis has a high rate of recurrence despite therapy.[1] Common complications of aortitis include: aortic aneurysm, aortic rupture, aortic dissection, thrombus formation in the aortic lumen, and hypertension. The prognosis of infectious aortitis is generally poor. Prognosis of isolated aortitis and aortitis associated with rheumatic diseases is generally good with prompt diagnosis.[2] Symptoms of aortitis include back pain, fever, abdominal pain, chest pain, shortness of breath, and fatigue. Common physical examination findings of aortitis include abnormal heart sounds, hypertension or hypotension, a difference in blood pressure between both arms, and either reduced or absent pulses.[3] CT scan with the administration of iodinated contrast (CTA) may be diagnostic of aortitis. Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is the noninvasive imaging of choice for aortitis. On transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiogram, aortitis is characterized by aortic wall thickening.[4] Early antimicrobial therapy with broad spectrum coverage is indicated in infectious aortitis. The preferred agents include either Cefotaxime, Ciprofloxacin, penicillinase-resistant penicillins, or Vancomycin. Surgical debridement is recommended among patients with gram-negative rod aortitis.
Classification
Aortitis may be classified according to the cause into 2 groups: inflammatory and infectious.[1][5]
Pathophysiology
Aortitis is inflammation or infection of the aortic wall.[1] On microscopic histopathological analysis, extensive intimal and adventitial fibrosis and scarring with luminal narrowing are characteristic findings of aortitis due to Takayasu arteritis.[1] Extensive medial inflammation and necrosis are characteristic findings on microscopic histopathological analysis of aortitis due to giant cell arteritis.[1] The majority of cases of infectious aortitis are due to bacteria seeding through a segment of the aortic wall with existing pathology via the vasa vasorum.
Causes
Life threatening causes of aortitis include bacteremia and mycotic aneurysm. Common causes of aortitis include ankylosing spondylitis, giant cell arteritis, Takayasu arteritis, and syphilis.
Differential Diagnosis
Aortitis must be differentiated from aortic dissection, intramural hematoma, and penetrating atherosclerotic ulcer.[1]
Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
If left untreated, infectious aortitis is associated with a high rate of aortic rupture and subsequent mortality. Aortitis due to either giant cell arteritis or Takayasu arteritis has a high rate of recurrence despite therapy.[1] Common complications of aortitis include: aortic aneurysm, aortic rupture, aortic dissection, thrombus formation in the aortic lumen, and hypertension. The prognosis of infectious aortitis is generally poor. Prognosis of isolated aortitis and aortitis associated with rheumatic diseases is generally good with prompt diagnosis.[6]
Diagnosis
History and Symptoms
Symptoms of aortitis include back pain, fever, abdominal pain, chest pain, shortness of breath, and fatigue.
Physical Examination
Common physical examination findings of aortitis include abnormal heart sounds, hypertension or hypotension, a difference in blood pressure between both arms, and either reduced or absent pulses.[7]
Laboratory Findings
Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of aortitis include elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein.[8]
CT
CT scan with the administration of iodinated contrast (CTA) may be diagnostic of aortitis. Findings on CT suggestive of aortitis include thickening of the aortic wall and periaortic inflammation. CT scan may also be helpful in the diagnosis of the complications of aortitis. Findings on CT suggestive of complications of aortitis include aortic and arterial calcification, stenotic lesions of the aorta, aortic aneurysm, and luminal thrombus.[1]
MRI
Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is the noninvasive imaging of choice for aortitis. On MRA, aortitis is characterized by stenoses at multiple levels, mural thrombi, and thickening of aortic valve cusps.
Echocardiography and Ultrasound
On transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiogram, aortitis is characterized by aortic wall thickening.[4] Echocardiography may also be helpful in the assessment of aortic root and aortic valve involvement in aortitis.[1] Findings on ultrasound suggestive of Takayasu arteritis include extensive concentric thickening of affected aorta and branch vessels.[9] Findings on ultrasound suggestive of giant cell arteritis include a "halo" sign, aortic wall thickening, and small aneurysms.[1]
Treatment
Medical Therapy
Early antimicrobial therapy with broad spectrum coverage is indicated in infectious aortitis. The preferred agents include either Cefotaxime, Ciprofloxacin, penicillinase-resistant penicillins, or Vancomycin.
Surgical Therapy
Surgical debridement is recommended among patients with gram-negative rod aortitis.
References
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 Gornik HL, Creager MA (2008). "Aortitis". Circulation. 117 (23): 3039–51. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.760686. PMC 2759760. PMID 18541754.Accessed on September 14th, 2015
- ↑ "Isolated aortitis".Accessed on September 14th, 2015
- ↑ Accessed on September 11th, 2015 "Isolated Aortitis" Check
|url=value (help). - ↑ 4.0 4.1 Harris KM, Malenka DJ, Plehn JF (1997). "Transesophageal echocardiographic evaluation of aortitis". Clin Cardiol. 20 (9): 813–5. PMID 9294676.Accessed on September 14th, 2015
- ↑ Bronze MS, Shirwany A, Corbett C, Schaberg DR (1999). "Infectious aortitis: an uncommon manifestation of infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae". The American Journal of Medicine. 107 (6): 627–30. PMID 10651596. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ "Isolated aortitis".Accessed on September 14th, 2015
- ↑ Accessed on September 11th, 2015 "Isolated Aortitis" Check
|url=value (help). - ↑ "Aortitis".Accessed on September 11th, 2015
- ↑ Hartlage GR, Palios J, Barron BJ, Stillman AE, Bossone E, Clements SD; et al. (2014). "Multimodality imaging of aortitis". JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 7 (6): 605–19. doi:10.1016/j.jcmg.2014.04.002. PMID 24925329.