Abdominal parasitic infection: Difference between revisions

	Abdominal parasitic infection Main page
Overview
Causes
Ascaris lumbricoides
Necator americanus
Giardia lamblia
Fasciola Hepaticum
Schistosoma
Strongyloidis Stercoralis
E. Histolytica (Amebiasis)
Taeniasis
Trichuris trichiura
Hymenolepis Nana

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Latest revision as of 16:44, 5 April 2018

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Mohammed Abdelwahed M.D [2] Aditya Ganti M.B.B.S. [3]

Overview

An intestinal parasite infection is a condition in which a parasite infects the gastro-intestinal tract of humans and other animals. Mode of transmission of infection can be due to ingestion of undercooked meat, drinking infected water, fecal-oral transmission and skin absorption. There are many types of parasites that can cause abdomial infections but the most common parasites responsible for infection include Ascaris lumbricoides, Necator americanus, Fasciola, Schistosoma, Trichuris trichiura, Strongyloides stercoralis, Taenia, Hymenolepis nana, and Entamoeba histolytica. Common symptoms of abdominal parasitic infections include are abdominal discomfort, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Stool microscopy is the most common diagnostic tool for evaluation. Common complications include focal neurologic changes, pericarditis, arrhythmia, and right-sided pleural effusion. Serology is used as screening mainly because of low sensitivity. albendazole is the drug of choice for treatment of most parasitic infections.

Causes

Ascaris lumbricoides
Necator americanus
Ancylostoma duodenale
Fasciola
Schistosoma (S. mansoni, S. haematobium, S. japonicum)
Trichuris trichiura
Strongyloides stercoralis
Taenia (solium, saginatum)
Hymenolepis nana
Entamoeba histolytica
Giardia lamblia
Entamoeba dispar
Entamoeba moshkowskii
Entamoeba coli
Entamoeba hartmanii
Endolimax nana
Iodamoeba butschlii
Chilomastix mesnili
Blastocystis hominis

Abdominal Parasitic infections

The following table summarizes all the abdominal parasitic infections.

Parasitic Infection		Mode of infection	Incidence	Epidemiology	Clinical manifestations	Diagnosis	Treatment
Disease	Parasite	Mode of infection	Incidence	Geographic distrubution	Clinical manifestations	Diagnosis	Treatment
Ascariasis	Ascaris lumbricoides	Ingestion of Ascaris eggs secreted in the feces of humans or pigs.^[1] Ingesting uncooked pig or chicken liver with the larvae.	Ascariasis affects at least 1 billion people worldwide and about 4 million people in the United States.^[2]	Asia Africa South America	Abdominal discomfort Anorexia Nausea and vomiting Diarrhea Intestinal obstruction	Stool microscopy Peripheral eosinophilia Barium swallow	Albendazole Mebendazole Ivermectin
Necatoriasis	Necator americanus	Skin contact	Approximately 800 million people are infected with hookworms worldwide.^[3]	Brazil Texas Africa China Southwest Pacific islands India Southeast Asia	Acute ^[4] Nausea and vomiting Diarrhea Epigastric pain Increased flatulence Chronic^[5] Bloody stools Anemia LBW in pregnant women	Stool microscopy^[6] Peripheral eosinophilia	Albendazole Mebendazole^[7] Pyrantel pamoate^[8]
Giardiasis	Giardia lamblia	Ingestion of raw or undercooked food contaminated with cysts.^[9]	Approximately, 15,223 cases were reported in the United States in 2012.^[10]	Worldwide infection Among mountains hikers	Asymptomatic^[11] Acute Diarrhea Malaise Steatorrhea Abdominal cramps Bloating Nausea Weight loss. Chronic Loose stools Malabsorption Steatorrhea Weight loss Fatigue	Antigen detection assays Fluorescein-tagged monoclonal antibodies Immunochromatographic assays^[12] Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays Nucleic acid amplification^[13]assays (NAAT) Stool microscopy	Tinidazole^[14] Nitazoxanide
Fasciolosis	Fasciola Hepaticum			Central and South America Asia (China, Vietnam, Taiwan, Korea, and Thailand) Europe (Portugal, France, Spain, and Turkey) Africa The Middle East	Acute liver phase Fever Anorexia Nausea and vomiting Myalgia Cough Right upper quadrant pain Hematomas of the liver Jaundice Hepatomegaly.^[15] Chronic biliary phase Asymptomatic^[16] Common bile duct obstruction Pancreatitis	Microscopy^[17] Stools Bile Duodenal aspiration Peripheral eosinophilia may disappear.^[18] Serology Indirect hemagglutination Complement fixation Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay	Triclabendazole Bithionol Nitazoxanide
Schistosomiasis	S. mansoni S. japonicum S. haematobium	Infection can occur by: Penetration of the human skin by cercaria Handling of contaminated soil Consumption of contaminated water or food sources (e.g, unwashed garden vegetables)	Approximately 200 million people are infected annually with 200,000 deaths per year.	Sub-Saharan Africa^[19]	Acute schistosomiasis syndrome ^[20] Fever and chills Urticaria Angioedema Myalgias Arthralgias Dry cough Diarrhea Abdominal pain Headache.^[21] Chronic schistosomias^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25] Intestinal schistosomiasis Hepatosplenic schistosomiasis^[26]^[27] Pulmonary schistosomiasis^[28] Genitourinary schistosomiasis	Stool microscopy^[29] Serologic tests include: Indirect hemagglutination Complement fixation Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay PCR	Praziquantel^[30] Oxamniquine
Strongyloidiasis	Strongyloidis Stercoralis	Infection is contracted via direct contact with contaminated soil during agricultural, domestic, and recreational activities	Approximately 30–100 million infected persons worldwide	Tropical and subtropical regions	Hyperinfection syndrome Fever Nausea and vomiting Anorexia Diarrhea Abdominal pain Dyspnea Wheezing Hemoptysis Cough	Aspiration of duodenojejunal fluid is sometimes used to detect^[31] Stool microscopy PCR, ELISA	Ivermectin^[32] Albendazole^[33]
Amoebiasis	E. Histolytica	Transmitted by the fecal-oral route through contaminated drinking water or food. Direct contact with infected individuals.	Annual incidence of amoebiasis is approximately 50 million cases.^[34]^[35]^[36]	India Africa Mexico Parts of Central and South America	Asymptomatic Mild diarrhea to severe dysentery. Fulminant amebic colitis. Weight loss Amebic dysentery	Stool microscopy Antigen testing PCR	Metronidazole Tinidazole Paromomycin Diloxanide furoate Iodoquinol
Taeniasis	Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm) Taenia solium, ( pork tapeworm)^[37]	Consumption of undercooked beef	Approximately 50 million human have cysticercosis.	Europe Parts of Asia	Most human carriers are asymptomatic. Symptoms may include Nausea Anorexia Epigastric pain	Stool microscopy Peripheral eosinophilia ELISA PCR	Albendazole
Trichuriasis	Trichuris trichiura	Ingestion of embryonatedeggs from contaminated drinking water and food.	600-800 million people are infected worldwide.	Endemic in tropical and subtropical countries. Southern United States Incidence and prevalence rates are highest in children living in Sub-Saharan Africa Asia Latin America Caribbean	Asymptomatic^[38] Loose stool which may contain mucus and blood Nocturnal stooling Rectal prolapse	Stool microscopy Proctoscopy Demonstrates adult worms protruding from the bowel mucosa. Eosinophilia Polymerase chain reaction	Mebendazole^[39] 500 mg PO q24h X 3 day (or) 100 mg PO q12h x 2 days Albendazole^[40] 400 mg POq24h
Hymenolepiasis	Hymenolepis nana	Ingestion of infected eggs	50-75 million carriers of H. nana. 5 to 25% prevalence among children worldwide.	Most common in temperate zones^[41] South Europe Russia India US Latin America	Asymptomatic^[42] Heavy infections with >1000 worms can occur Crampy abdominal pain Diarrhea Anorexia Fatigue Pruritus ani	Stool microscopy FLOTAC method^[43]	Praziquantel^[44] Prompt family screening or empiric treatment^[45]

References

↑ Permin A, Henningsen E, Murrell KD, Roepstorff A, Nansen P (2000). "Pigs become infected after ingestion of livers and lungs from chickens infected with Ascaris of pig origin". Int J Parasitol. 30 (7): 867–8. PMID 10899534.
↑ Betson M, Nejsum P, Bendall RP, Deb RM, Stothard JR (2014). "Molecular epidemiology of ascariasis: a global perspective on the transmission dynamics of Ascaris in people and pigs". J Infect Dis. 210 (6): 932–41. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiu193. PMC 4136802. PMID 24688073.
↑ Bradbury RS, Hii SF, Harrington H, Speare R, Traub R (2017). "Ancylostoma ceylanicum Hookworm in the Solomon Islands". Emerg Infect Dis. 23 (2): 252–257. doi:10.3201/eid2302.160822. PMC 5324822. PMID 28098526.
↑ Nawalinski TA, Schad GA (1974). "Arrested development in Ancylostoma duodenale: course of a self-induced infection in man". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 23 (5): 895–8. PMID 4451228.
↑ Chhabra P, Bhasin DK (2017). "Hookworm-Induced Obscure Overt Gastrointestinal Bleeding". Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 15 (11): e161–e162. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2017.02.034. PMID 28300694.
↑ McKenna ML, McAtee S, Bryan PE, Jeun R, Ward T, Kraus J; et al. (2017). "Human Intestinal Parasite Burden and Poor Sanitation in Rural Alabama". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 97 (5): 1623–1628. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.17-0396. PMID 29016326.
↑ Genta RM, Woods KL (1991). "Endoscopic diagnosis of hookworm infection". Gastrointest Endosc. 37 (4): 476–8. PMID 1916173.
↑ Serre-Delcor N, Treviño B, Monge B, Salvador F, Torrus D, Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez B; et al. (2017). "Eosinophilia prevalence and related factors in travel and immigrants of the network +REDIVI". Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 35 (10): 617–623. doi:10.1016/j.eimc.2016.02.024. PMID 27032297.
↑ Quick R, Paugh K, Addiss D, Kobayashi J, Baron R (1992). "Restaurant-associated outbreak of giardiasis". J Infect Dis. 166 (3): 673–6. PMID 1500757.
↑ Muhsen K, Levine MM (2012). "A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between Giardia lamblia and endemic pediatric diarrhea in developing countries". Clin Infect Dis. 55 Suppl 4: S271–93. doi:10.1093/cid/cis762. PMC 3502312. PMID 23169940.
↑ Pickering LK, Woodward WE, DuPont HL, Sullivan P (1984). "Occurrence of Giardia lamblia in children in day care centers". J Pediatr. 104 (4): 522–6. PMID 6707812.
↑ Lengerich EJ, Addiss DG, Juranek DD (1994). "Severe giardiasis in the United States". Clin Infect Dis. 18 (5): 760–3. PMID 8075266.
↑ Claas EC, Burnham CA, Mazzulli T, Templeton K, Topin F (2013). "Performance of the xTAG® gastrointestinal pathogen panel, a multiplex molecular assay for simultaneous detection of bacterial, viral, and parasitic causes of infectious gastroenteritis". J Microbiol Biotechnol. 23 (7): 1041–5. PMID 23711521.
↑ Fung HB, Doan TL (2005). "Tinidazole: a nitroimidazole antiprotozoal agent". Clin Ther. 27 (12): 1859–84. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2005.12.012. PMID 16507373.
↑ Chan CW, Lam SK (1987). "Diseases caused by liver flukes and cholangiocarcinoma". Baillieres Clin Gastroenterol. 1 (2): 297–318. PMID 2822181.
↑ Marcos LA, Terashima A, Gotuzzo E (2008). "Update on hepatobiliary flukes: fascioliasis, opisthorchiasis and clonorchiasis". Curr Opin Infect Dis. 21 (5): 523–30. doi:10.1097/QCO.0b013e32830f9818. PMID 18725803.
↑ Prociv P, Walker JC, Whitby M (1992). "Human ectopic fascioliasis in Australia: first case reports". Med J Aust. 156 (5): 349–51. PMID 1588869.
↑ Kaya M, Beştaş R, Cetin S (2011). "Clinical presentation and management of Fasciola hepatica infection: single-center experience". World J Gastroenterol. 17 (44): 4899–904. doi:10.3748/wjg.v17.i44.4899. PMC 3235633. PMID 22171131.
↑ Gower CM, Gouvras AN, Lamberton PH, Deol A, Shrivastava J, Mutombo PN; et al. (2013). "Population genetic structure of Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haematobium from across six sub-Saharan African countries: implications for epidemiology, evolution and control". Acta Trop. 128 (2): 261–74. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2012.09.014. PMID 23041540.
↑ Jauréguiberry S, Ansart S, Perez L, Danis M, Bricaire F, Caumes E (2007). "Acute neuroschistosomiasis: two cases associated with cerebral vasculitis". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 76 (5): 964–6. PMID 17488923.
↑ Rocha MO, Rocha RL, Pedroso ER, Greco DB, Ferreira CS, Lambertucci JR; et al. (1995). "Pulmonary manifestations in the initial phase of schistosomiasis mansoni". Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 37 (4): 311–8. PMID 8599059.
↑ Lucey DR, Maguire JH (1993). "Schistosomiasis". Infect Dis Clin North Am. 7 (3): 635–53. PMID 8254164.
↑ Stothard JR, Sousa-Figueiredo JC, Betson M, Bustinduy A, Reinhard-Rupp J (2013). "Schistosomiasis in African infants and preschool children: let them now be treated!". Trends Parasitol. 29 (4): 197–205. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2013.02.001. PMC 3878762. PMID 23465781.
↑ Gabbi C, Bertolotti M, Iori R, Rivasi F, Stanzani C, Maurantonio M; et al. (2006). "Acute abdomen associated with schistosomiasis of the appendix". Dig Dis Sci. 51 (1): 215–7. doi:10.1007/s10620-006-3111-5. PMID 16416239.
↑ Mu A, Fernandes I, Phillips D (2016). "A 57-Year-Old Woman With a Cecal Mass". Clin Infect Dis. 63 (5): 703–5. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw413. PMID 27521443.
↑ Homeida M, Abdel-Gadir AF, Cheever AW, Bennett JL, Arbab BM, Ibrahium SZ; et al. (1988). "Diagnosis of pathologically confirmed Symmers' periportal fibrosis by ultrasonography: a prospective blinded study". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 38 (1): 86–91. PMID 3124648.
↑ Dessein AJ, Hillaire D, Elwali NE, Marquet S, Mohamed-Ali Q, Mirghani A; et al. (1999). "Severe hepatic fibrosis in Schistosoma mansoni infection is controlled by a major locus that is closely linked to the interferon-gamma receptor gene". Am J Hum Genet. 65 (3): 709–21. doi:10.1086/302526. PMC 1377977. PMID 10441577.
↑ Sarwat AK, Tag el Din MA, Bassiouni M, Ashmawi SS (1986). "Schistosomiasis of the lung". J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 16 (1): 359–66. PMID 3722898.
↑ Mahmoud AA (1982). "The ecology of eosinophils in schistosomiasis". J Infect Dis. 145 (5): 613–22. PMID 7042854.
↑ Cioli D, Pica-Mattoccia L, Basso A, Guidi A (2014). "Schistosomiasis control: praziquantel forever?". Mol Biochem Parasitol. 195 (1): 23–9. doi:10.1016/j.molbiopara.2014.06.002. PMID 24955523.
↑ Carroll SM, Karthigasu KT, Grove DI (1981). "Serodiagnosis of human strongyloidiasis by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay". Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 75 (5): 706–9. PMID 7036430.
↑ Zaha O, Hirata T, Kinjo F, Saito A, Fukuhara H (2002). "Efficacy of ivermectin for chronic strongyloidiasis: two single doses given 2 weeks apart". J Infect Chemother. 8 (1): 94–8. doi:10.1007/s101560200013. PMID 11957127.
↑ Archibald LK, Beeching NJ, Gill GV, Bailey JW, Bell DR (1993). "Albendazole is effective treatment for chronic strongyloidiasis". Q J Med. 86 (3): 191–5. PMID 8483992.
↑ Valenzuela O, Morán P, Gómez A, Cordova K, Corrales N, Cardoza J; et al. (2007). "Epidemiology of amoebic liver abscess in Mexico: the case of Sonora". Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 101 (6): 533–8. doi:10.1179/136485907X193851. PMID 17716437.
↑ van Hal SJ, Stark DJ, Fotedar R, Marriott D, Ellis JT, Harkness JL (2007). "Amoebiasis: current status in Australia". Med J Aust. 186 (8): 412–6. PMID 17437396.
↑ Ximénez C, Morán P, Rojas L, Valadez A, Gómez A (2009). "Reassessment of the epidemiology of amebiasis: state of the art". Infect Genet Evol. 9 (6): 1023–32. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2009.06.008. PMID 19540361.
↑ Forrester JE, Bailar JC, Esrey SA, José MV, Castillejos BT, Ocampo G (1998). "Randomised trial of albendazole and pyrantel in symptomless trichuriasis in children". Lancet. 352 (9134): 1103–8. PMID 9798586.
↑ Forrester JE, Bailar JC, Esrey SA, José MV, Castillejos BT, Ocampo G (1998). "Randomised trial of albendazole and pyrantel in symptomless trichuriasis in children". Lancet. 352 (9134): 1103–8. PMID 9798586.
↑ Rossignol JF, Maisonneuve H (1984). "Benzimidazoles in the treatment of trichuriasis: a review". Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 78 (2): 135–44. PMID 6378109.
↑ Steinmann P, Utzinger J, Du ZW, Jiang JY, Chen JX, Hattendorf J; et al. (2011). "Efficacy of single-dose and triple-dose albendazole and mebendazole against soil-transmitted helminths and Taenia spp.: a randomized controlled trial". PLoS One. 6 (9): e25003. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025003. PMC 3181256. PMID 21980373.
↑ Utzinger J, Botero-Kleiven S, Castelli F, Chiodini PL, Edwards H, Köhler N; et al. (2010). "Microscopic diagnosis of sodium acetate-acetic acid-formalin-fixed stool samples for helminths and intestinal protozoa: a comparison among European reference laboratories". Clin Microbiol Infect. 16 (3): 267–73. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02782.x. PMID 19456836.
↑ Muehlenbachs A, Bhatnagar J, Agudelo CA, Hidron A, Eberhard ML, Mathison BA; et al. (2015). "Malignant Transformation of Hymenolepis nana in a Human Host". N Engl J Med. 373 (19): 1845–52. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1505892. PMID 26535513.
↑ Steinmann P, Cringoli G, Bruschi F, Matthys B, Lohourignon LK, Castagna B; et al. (2012). "FLOTAC for the diagnosis of Hymenolepis spp. infection: proof-of-concept and comparing diagnostic accuracy with other methods". Parasitol Res. 111 (2): 749–54. doi:10.1007/s00436-012-2895-9. PMID 22461006.
↑ Ohnishi K, Sakamoto N, Kobayashi K, Iwabuchi S, Nakamura-Uchiyama F (2013). "Therapeutic effect of praziquantel against Taeniasis asiatica". Int J Infect Dis. 17 (8): e656–7. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2013.02.028. PMID 23618773.
↑ Pawłowski ZS (1990). "Efficacy of low doses of praziquantel in taeniasis". Acta Trop. 48 (2): 83–8. PMID 1980572.

[pmid108995342-1] Permin A, Henningsen E, Murrell KD, Roepstorff A, Nansen P (2000). "Pigs become infected after ingestion of livers and lungs from chickens infected with Ascaris of pig origin". Int J Parasitol. 30 (7): 867–8. PMID 10899534.

[pmid246880732-2] Betson M, Nejsum P, Bendall RP, Deb RM, Stothard JR (2014). "Molecular epidemiology of ascariasis: a global perspective on the transmission dynamics of Ascaris in people and pigs". J Infect Dis. 210 (6): 932–41. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiu193. PMC 4136802. PMID 24688073.

[pmid280985262-3] Bradbury RS, Hii SF, Harrington H, Speare R, Traub R (2017). "Ancylostoma ceylanicum Hookworm in the Solomon Islands". Emerg Infect Dis. 23 (2): 252–257. doi:10.3201/eid2302.160822. PMC 5324822. PMID 28098526.

[pmid44512282-4] Nawalinski TA, Schad GA (1974). "Arrested development in Ancylostoma duodenale: course of a self-induced infection in man". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 23 (5): 895–8. PMID 4451228.

[pmid283006942-5] Chhabra P, Bhasin DK (2017). "Hookworm-Induced Obscure Overt Gastrointestinal Bleeding". Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 15 (11): e161–e162. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2017.02.034. PMID 28300694.

[pmid290163262-6] McKenna ML, McAtee S, Bryan PE, Jeun R, Ward T, Kraus J; et al. (2017). "Human Intestinal Parasite Burden and Poor Sanitation in Rural Alabama". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 97 (5): 1623–1628. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.17-0396. PMID 29016326.

[pmid19161732-7] Genta RM, Woods KL (1991). "Endoscopic diagnosis of hookworm infection". Gastrointest Endosc. 37 (4): 476–8. PMID 1916173.

[pmid27032297-8] Serre-Delcor N, Treviño B, Monge B, Salvador F, Torrus D, Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez B; et al. (2017). "Eosinophilia prevalence and related factors in travel and immigrants of the network +REDIVI". Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 35 (10): 617–623. doi:10.1016/j.eimc.2016.02.024. PMID 27032297.

[pmid15007572-9] Quick R, Paugh K, Addiss D, Kobayashi J, Baron R (1992). "Restaurant-associated outbreak of giardiasis". J Infect Dis. 166 (3): 673–6. PMID 1500757.

[pmid231699402-10] Muhsen K, Levine MM (2012). "A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between Giardia lamblia and endemic pediatric diarrhea in developing countries". Clin Infect Dis. 55 Suppl 4: S271–93. doi:10.1093/cid/cis762. PMC 3502312. PMID 23169940.

[pmid67078122-11] Pickering LK, Woodward WE, DuPont HL, Sullivan P (1984). "Occurrence of Giardia lamblia in children in day care centers". J Pediatr. 104 (4): 522–6. PMID 6707812.

[pmid80752662-12] Lengerich EJ, Addiss DG, Juranek DD (1994). "Severe giardiasis in the United States". Clin Infect Dis. 18 (5): 760–3. PMID 8075266.

[pmid237115212-13] Claas EC, Burnham CA, Mazzulli T, Templeton K, Topin F (2013). "Performance of the xTAG® gastrointestinal pathogen panel, a multiplex molecular assay for simultaneous detection of bacterial, viral, and parasitic causes of infectious gastroenteritis". J Microbiol Biotechnol. 23 (7): 1041–5. PMID 23711521.

[pmid165073732-14] Fung HB, Doan TL (2005). "Tinidazole: a nitroimidazole antiprotozoal agent". Clin Ther. 27 (12): 1859–84. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2005.12.012. PMID 16507373.

[pmid28221812-15] Chan CW, Lam SK (1987). "Diseases caused by liver flukes and cholangiocarcinoma". Baillieres Clin Gastroenterol. 1 (2): 297–318. PMID 2822181.

[pmid187258032-16] Marcos LA, Terashima A, Gotuzzo E (2008). "Update on hepatobiliary flukes: fascioliasis, opisthorchiasis and clonorchiasis". Curr Opin Infect Dis. 21 (5): 523–30. doi:10.1097/QCO.0b013e32830f9818. PMID 18725803.

[pmid15888692-17] Prociv P, Walker JC, Whitby M (1992). "Human ectopic fascioliasis in Australia: first case reports". Med J Aust. 156 (5): 349–51. PMID 1588869.

[pmid221711313-18] Kaya M, Beştaş R, Cetin S (2011). "Clinical presentation and management of Fasciola hepatica infection: single-center experience". World J Gastroenterol. 17 (44): 4899–904. doi:10.3748/wjg.v17.i44.4899. PMC 3235633. PMID 22171131.

[pmid230415402-19] Gower CM, Gouvras AN, Lamberton PH, Deol A, Shrivastava J, Mutombo PN; et al. (2013). "Population genetic structure of Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haematobium from across six sub-Saharan African countries: implications for epidemiology, evolution and control". Acta Trop. 128 (2): 261–74. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2012.09.014. PMID 23041540.

[pmid174889232-20] Jauréguiberry S, Ansart S, Perez L, Danis M, Bricaire F, Caumes E (2007). "Acute neuroschistosomiasis: two cases associated with cerebral vasculitis". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 76 (5): 964–6. PMID 17488923.

[pmid85990592-21] Rocha MO, Rocha RL, Pedroso ER, Greco DB, Ferreira CS, Lambertucci JR; et al. (1995). "Pulmonary manifestations in the initial phase of schistosomiasis mansoni". Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 37 (4): 311–8. PMID 8599059.

[pmid82541642-22] Lucey DR, Maguire JH (1993). "Schistosomiasis". Infect Dis Clin North Am. 7 (3): 635–53. PMID 8254164.

[pmid234657812-23] Stothard JR, Sousa-Figueiredo JC, Betson M, Bustinduy A, Reinhard-Rupp J (2013). "Schistosomiasis in African infants and preschool children: let them now be treated!". Trends Parasitol. 29 (4): 197–205. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2013.02.001. PMC 3878762. PMID 23465781.

[pmid164162392-24] Gabbi C, Bertolotti M, Iori R, Rivasi F, Stanzani C, Maurantonio M; et al. (2006). "Acute abdomen associated with schistosomiasis of the appendix". Dig Dis Sci. 51 (1): 215–7. doi:10.1007/s10620-006-3111-5. PMID 16416239.

[pmid275214432-25] Mu A, Fernandes I, Phillips D (2016). "A 57-Year-Old Woman With a Cecal Mass". Clin Infect Dis. 63 (5): 703–5. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw413. PMID 27521443.

[pmid31246482-26] Homeida M, Abdel-Gadir AF, Cheever AW, Bennett JL, Arbab BM, Ibrahium SZ; et al. (1988). "Diagnosis of pathologically confirmed Symmers' periportal fibrosis by ultrasonography: a prospective blinded study". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 38 (1): 86–91. PMID 3124648.

[pmid104415772-27] Dessein AJ, Hillaire D, Elwali NE, Marquet S, Mohamed-Ali Q, Mirghani A; et al. (1999). "Severe hepatic fibrosis in Schistosoma mansoni infection is controlled by a major locus that is closely linked to the interferon-gamma receptor gene". Am J Hum Genet. 65 (3): 709–21. doi:10.1086/302526. PMC 1377977. PMID 10441577.

[pmid37228982-28] Sarwat AK, Tag el Din MA, Bassiouni M, Ashmawi SS (1986). "Schistosomiasis of the lung". J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 16 (1): 359–66. PMID 3722898.

[pmid70428542-29] Mahmoud AA (1982). "The ecology of eosinophils in schistosomiasis". J Infect Dis. 145 (5): 613–22. PMID 7042854.

[pmid249555232-30] Cioli D, Pica-Mattoccia L, Basso A, Guidi A (2014). "Schistosomiasis control: praziquantel forever?". Mol Biochem Parasitol. 195 (1): 23–9. doi:10.1016/j.molbiopara.2014.06.002. PMID 24955523.

[pmid70364302-31] Carroll SM, Karthigasu KT, Grove DI (1981). "Serodiagnosis of human strongyloidiasis by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay". Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 75 (5): 706–9. PMID 7036430.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 __NOTOC__
-{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{MAD}}
+{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{MAD}} {{ADG}}
 {{Abdominal parasitic infection}}
+==Overview==
+An intestinal parasite infection is a condition in which a [[Parasites|parasite]] [[Infect|infects]] the [[Gastrointestinal tract|gastro-intestinal tract]] of humans and other animals. Mode of transmission of infection can be due to [[ingestion]] of undercooked meat, drinking infected water, fecal-oral transmission and skin absorption. There are many types of parasites that can cause  abdomial infections but the most common parasites responsible for infection include [[Ascaris lumbricoides]], [[Necator americanus]], [[Fasciola hepatica|Fasciola]], [[Schistosoma]], [[Trichuris trichiura]], [[Strongyloides stercoralis]], [[Taenia solium|Taenia,]] [[Hymenolepis infection|Hymenolepis nana]], and [[Entamoeba histolytica]]. Common symptoms of abdominal parasitic infections include are [[abdominal discomfort]], [[anorexia]], [[Nausea and vomiting|nausea]], [[vomiting]], and [[diarrhea]]. [[Stool examination|Stool microscopy]] is the most common diagnostic tool for evaluation.  Common complications include [[Focal neurologic signs|focal neurologic changes]], [[pericarditis]], [[Arrhythmias|arrhythmia]], and right-sided [[pleural effusion]]. [[Serology]] is used as screening mainly because of low sensitivity. [[albendazole]] is the drug of choice for treatment  of most parasitic infections.
+== Causes ==
+* [[Ascaris lumbricoides]]
+* [[Necator americanus]]
+* [[Ancylostoma duodenale]]
+* [[Fasciola hepatica|Fasciola]]
+* [[Schistosoma]] ([[Schistosoma mansoni|S. mansoni]], [[Schistosoma haematobium|S. haematobium]], [[Schistosoma japonicum|S. japonicum]])
+* [[Trichuris trichiura]]
+* [[Strongyloides stercoralis]]
+* [[Taenia solium|Taenia (solium]], [[Taenia saginata|saginatum]])
+* [[Hymenolepis infection|Hymenolepis nana]]
+* [[Entamoeba histolytica]]
+* [[Giardia lamblia]]
+* Entamoeba dispar
+* Entamoeba moshkowskii
+* [[Entamoeba coli]]
+* Entamoeba hartmanii
+* Endolimax nana
+* Iodamoeba butschlii
+* Chilomastix mesnili
+* [[Blastocystis hominis]]'' ''
-==Overview==
+== Abdominal Parasitic infections ==
+The following table summarizes all the abdominal parasitic infections.
+{|
+! colspan="2" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" align="center" + |Parasitic Infection
+! rowspan="2" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" align="center" + |Mode of infection
+! rowspan="2" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" align="center" + |Incidence
+! style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" align="center" + |Epidemiology
+! rowspan="2" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" align="center" + |'''Clinical manifestations'''
+! rowspan="2" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" align="center" + |Diagnosis
+! rowspan="2" style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" align="center" + |Treatment
+|-
+! style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" align="center" + |Disease
+! style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" align="center" + |Parasite
+! style="background:#4479BA; color: #FFFFFF;" align="center" + |Geographic distrubution
+|-
+! style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |[[Ascariasis]]
+| style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |[[Ascaris lumbricoides|''Ascaris lumbricoides'']]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Ingestion of [[Ascaris infection|Ascaris]] eggs secreted in the feces of humans or pigs.<ref name="pmid108995342">{{cite journal| author=Permin A, Henningsen E, Murrell KD, Roepstorff A, Nansen P| title=Pigs become infected after ingestion of livers and lungs from chickens infected with Ascaris of pig origin. | journal=Int J Parasitol | year= 2000 | volume= 30 | issue= 7 | pages= 867-8 | pmid=10899534 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10899534  }}</ref>
+*Ingesting uncooked pig or chicken liver with the larvae.
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Ascariasis affects at least 1 billion people worldwide and about 4 million people in the United States.<ref name="pmid246880732">{{cite journal| author=Betson M, Nejsum P, Bendall RP, Deb RM, Stothard JR| title=Molecular epidemiology of ascariasis: a global perspective on the transmission dynamics of Ascaris in people and pigs. | journal=J Infect Dis | year= 2014 | volume= 210 | issue= 6 | pages= 932-41 | pmid=24688073 | doi=10.1093/infdis/jiu193 | pmc=4136802 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24688073  }}</ref>
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Asia
+*Africa
+*South America
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*[[Abdominal discomfort]]
+*[[Anorexia]]
+*[[Nausea and vomiting]]
+*[[Diarrhea]]
+*[[Intestinal obstruction]]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*[[Stool examination|Stool microscopy]]
+*Peripheral [[eosinophilia]]
+*[[Barium swallow]]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*[[Albendazole]]
+*[[Mebendazole]]
+*[[Ivermectin]]
+|-
+! style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |[[Necatoriasis]]
+| style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |[[Necator americanus|''Necator americanus'']]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Skin contact
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Approximately 800 million people are infected with [[hookworms]] worldwide.<ref name="pmid280985262">{{cite journal| author=Bradbury RS, Hii SF, Harrington H, Speare R, Traub R| title=Ancylostoma ceylanicum Hookworm in the Solomon Islands. | journal=Emerg Infect Dis | year= 2017 | volume= 23 | issue= 2 | pages= 252-257 | pmid=28098526 | doi=10.3201/eid2302.160822 | pmc=5324822 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28098526  }}</ref>
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Brazil
+*Texas
+*Africa
+*China
+*Southwest Pacific islands
+*India
+*Southeast Asia
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*'''Acute <ref name="pmid44512282">{{cite journal| author=Nawalinski TA, Schad GA| title=Arrested development in Ancylostoma duodenale: course of a self-induced infection in man. | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year= 1974 | volume= 23 | issue= 5 | pages= 895-8 | pmid=4451228 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4451228  }}</ref>'''
+**[[Nausea and vomiting|Nausea]] and  [[Nausea and vomiting|vomiting]]
+**[[Diarrhea]]
+**Epigastric pain
+**Increased [[flatulence]]
+*'''Chronic<ref name="pmid283006942">{{cite journal| author=Chhabra P, Bhasin DK| title=Hookworm-Induced Obscure Overt Gastrointestinal Bleeding. | journal=Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol | year= 2017 | volume= 15 | issue= 11 | pages= e161-e162 | pmid=28300694 | doi=10.1016/j.cgh.2017.02.034 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28300694  }}</ref>'''
+**[[Bloody stools]]
+**[[Anemia]]
+**[[Low birth weight|LBW]] in [[pregnant]] women
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Stool microscopy<ref name="pmid290163262">{{cite journal| author=McKenna ML, McAtee S, Bryan PE, Jeun R, Ward T, Kraus J et al.| title=Human Intestinal Parasite Burden and Poor Sanitation in Rural Alabama. | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year= 2017 | volume= 97 | issue= 5 | pages= 1623-1628 | pmid=29016326 | doi=10.4269/ajtmh.17-0396 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29016326  }}</ref>
+*Peripheral [[eosinophilia]]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*[[Albendazole]]
+*[[Mebendazole]]<ref name="pmid19161732">{{cite journal| author=Genta RM, Woods KL| title=Endoscopic diagnosis of hookworm infection. | journal=Gastrointest Endosc | year= 1991 | volume= 37 | issue= 4 | pages= 476-8 | pmid=1916173 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1916173  }}</ref>
+*[[Pyrantel pamoate]]<ref name="pmid27032297">{{cite journal| author=Serre-Delcor N, Treviño B, Monge B, Salvador F, Torrus D, Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez B et al.| title=Eosinophilia prevalence and related factors in travel and immigrants of the network +REDIVI. | journal=Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin | year= 2017 | volume= 35 | issue= 10 | pages= 617-623 | pmid=27032297 | doi=10.1016/j.eimc.2016.02.024 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27032297  }}</ref>
+|-
+! style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |[[Giardiasis]]
+| style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |''[[Giardia lamblia]]''
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Ingestion of raw or undercooked food contaminated with [[cysts]].<ref name="pmid15007572">{{cite journal| author=Quick R, Paugh K, Addiss D, Kobayashi J, Baron R| title=Restaurant-associated outbreak of giardiasis. | journal=J Infect Dis | year= 1992 | volume= 166 | issue= 3 | pages= 673-6 | pmid=1500757 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1500757  }}</ref>
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Approximately, 15,223 cases were reported in the United States in 2012.<ref name="pmid231699402">{{cite journal| author=Muhsen K, Levine MM| title=A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between Giardia lamblia and endemic pediatric diarrhea in developing countries. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2012 | volume= 55 Suppl 4 | issue=  | pages= S271-93 | pmid=23169940 | doi=10.1093/cid/cis762 | pmc=3502312 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23169940  }}</ref>
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Worldwide infection
+*Among mountains hikers
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Asymptomatic<ref name="pmid67078122">{{cite journal| author=Pickering LK, Woodward WE, DuPont HL, Sullivan P| title=Occurrence of Giardia lamblia in children in day care centers. | journal=J Pediatr | year= 1984 | volume= 104 | issue= 4 | pages= 522-6 | pmid=6707812 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6707812  }}</ref>
+*Acute
+**[[Diarrhea]]
+**[[Malaise]]
+**[[Steatorrhea]]
+**[[Abdominal cramps]]
+**[[Bloating]]
+**[[Nausea and vomiting|Nausea]]
+**[[Weight loss]].
+*Chronic
+**Loose stools
+**[[Malabsorption]]
+**[[Steatorrhea]]
+**[[Weight loss]]
+**[[Fatigue]]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Antigen detection assays
+**[[Fluorescein]]-tagged [[monoclonal antibodies]]
+**Immunochromatographic assays<ref name="pmid80752662">{{cite journal| author=Lengerich EJ, Addiss DG, Juranek DD| title=Severe giardiasis in the United States. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1994 | volume= 18 | issue= 5 | pages= 760-3 | pmid=8075266 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8075266  }}</ref>
+**[[ELISA test|Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays]]
+*Nucleic acid amplification<ref name="pmid237115212">{{cite journal| author=Claas EC, Burnham CA, Mazzulli T, Templeton K, Topin F| title=Performance of the xTAG® gastrointestinal pathogen panel, a multiplex molecular assay for simultaneous detection of bacterial, viral, and parasitic causes of infectious gastroenteritis. | journal=J Microbiol Biotechnol | year= 2013 | volume= 23 | issue= 7 | pages= 1041-5 | pmid=23711521 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23711521  }}</ref>assays ([[NAAT]])
+*[[Stool examination|Stool microscopy]]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*[[Tinidazole]]<ref name="pmid165073732">{{cite journal| author=Fung HB, Doan TL| title=Tinidazole: a nitroimidazole antiprotozoal agent. | journal=Clin Ther | year= 2005 | volume= 27 | issue= 12 | pages= 1859-84 | pmid=16507373 | doi=10.1016/j.clinthera.2005.12.012 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16507373  }}</ref>
+*[[Nitazoxanide]]
+|-
+! style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + | [[Fasciolosis]]
+| style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |''[[Fasciola hepatica|Fasciola Hepaticum]]''
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Central and South America
+*Asia (China, Vietnam, Taiwan, Korea, and Thailand)
+*Europe (Portugal, France, Spain, and Turkey)
+*Africa
+*The Middle East
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Acute liver phase
+**[[Fever]]
+**[[Anorexia]]
+**Nausea and [[vomiting]]
+**[[Myalgia]]
+**[[Cough]]
+**Right upper quadrant pain
+**[[Hematoma|Hematomas]] of the [[liver]]
+**[[Jaundice]]
+**[[Hepatomegaly]].<ref name="pmid28221812">{{cite journal| author=Chan CW, Lam SK| title=Diseases caused by liver flukes and cholangiocarcinoma. | journal=Baillieres Clin Gastroenterol | year= 1987 | volume= 1 | issue= 2 | pages= 297-318 | pmid=2822181 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=2822181  }}</ref>
+*Chronic [[biliary]] phase
+**Asymptomatic<ref name="pmid187258032">{{cite journal| author=Marcos LA, Terashima A, Gotuzzo E| title=Update on hepatobiliary flukes: fascioliasis, opisthorchiasis and clonorchiasis. | journal=Curr Opin Infect Dis | year= 2008 | volume= 21 | issue= 5 | pages= 523-30 | pmid=18725803 | doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e32830f9818 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18725803  }}</ref>
+**[[Common bile duct]] obstruction
+**[[Pancreatitis]]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Microscopy<ref name="pmid15888692">{{cite journal| author=Prociv P, Walker JC, Whitby M| title=Human ectopic fascioliasis in Australia: first case reports. | journal=Med J Aust | year= 1992 | volume= 156 | issue= 5 | pages= 349-51 | pmid=1588869 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1588869  }}</ref>
+**Stools
+**Bile
+**Duodenal aspiration
+*Peripheral [[eosinophilia]] may disappear.<ref name="pmid221711313">{{cite journal| author=Kaya M, Beştaş R, Cetin S| title=Clinical presentation and management of Fasciola hepatica infection: single-center experience. | journal=World J Gastroenterol | year= 2011 | volume= 17 | issue= 44 | pages= 4899-904 | pmid=22171131 | doi=10.3748/wjg.v17.i44.4899 | pmc=3235633 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22171131  }}</ref>
+*Serology
+**[[Hemagglutination assay|Indirect hemagglutination]]
+**[[Complement fixation test|Complement fixation]]
+**[[Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)|Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay]]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*[[Triclabendazole]]
+*[[Bithionol]]
+*[[Nitazoxanide]]
+|-
+! style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |[[Schistosomiasis]]
+| style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |
+''[[Schistosoma mansoni|S. mansoni]]''<br>
+''[[Schistosoma japonicum|S. japonicum]]''<br>
+''[[Schistosoma haematobium|S. haematobium]]''
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Infection can occur by:
+**Penetration of the human skin by [[cercaria]]
+**Handling of contaminated soil
+**Consumption of contaminated water or food sources (e.g, unwashed garden vegetables)
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Approximately 200 million people are infected annually with 200,000 deaths per year.
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Sub-Saharan Africa<ref name="pmid230415402">{{cite journal| author=Gower CM, Gouvras AN, Lamberton PH, Deol A, Shrivastava J, Mutombo PN et al.| title=Population genetic structure of Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haematobium from across six sub-Saharan African countries: implications for epidemiology, evolution and control. | journal=Acta Trop | year= 2013 | volume= 128 | issue= 2 | pages= 261-74 | pmid=23041540 | doi=10.1016/j.actatropica.2012.09.014 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23041540  }}</ref>
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Acute schistosomiasis syndrome <ref name="pmid174889232">{{cite journal| author=Jauréguiberry S, Ansart S, Perez L, Danis M, Bricaire F, Caumes E| title=Acute neuroschistosomiasis: two cases associated with cerebral vasculitis. | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year= 2007 | volume= 76 | issue= 5 | pages= 964-6 | pmid=17488923 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17488923  }}</ref>
+*[[Fever]] and [[chills]]
+*[[Urticaria]]
+*[[Angioedema]]
+*[[Myalgias]]
+*[[Arthralgias]]
+*Dry [[cough]]
+*[[Diarrhea]]
+*[[Abdominal pain]]
+*[[Headache|Headache.]]<ref name="pmid85990592">{{cite journal| author=Rocha MO, Rocha RL, Pedroso ER, Greco DB, Ferreira CS, Lambertucci JR et al.| title=Pulmonary manifestations in the initial phase of schistosomiasis mansoni. | journal=Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo | year= 1995 | volume= 37 | issue= 4 | pages= 311-8 | pmid=8599059 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8599059  }}</ref>
+Chronic schistosomias<ref name="pmid82541642">{{cite journal| author=Lucey DR, Maguire JH| title=Schistosomiasis. | journal=Infect Dis Clin North Am | year= 1993 | volume= 7 | issue= 3 | pages= 635-53 | pmid=8254164 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8254164  }}</ref><ref name="pmid234657812">{{cite journal| author=Stothard JR, Sousa-Figueiredo JC, Betson M, Bustinduy A, Reinhard-Rupp J| title=Schistosomiasis in African infants and preschool children: let them now be treated! | journal=Trends Parasitol | year= 2013 | volume= 29 | issue= 4 | pages= 197-205 | pmid=23465781 | doi=10.1016/j.pt.2013.02.001 | pmc=3878762 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23465781  }}</ref><ref name="pmid164162392">{{cite journal| author=Gabbi C, Bertolotti M, Iori R, Rivasi F, Stanzani C, Maurantonio M et al.| title=Acute abdomen associated with schistosomiasis of the appendix. | journal=Dig Dis Sci | year= 2006 | volume= 51 | issue= 1 | pages= 215-7 | pmid=16416239 | doi=10.1007/s10620-006-3111-5 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16416239  }}</ref><ref name="pmid275214432">{{cite journal| author=Mu A, Fernandes I, Phillips D| title=A 57-Year-Old Woman With a Cecal Mass. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2016 | volume= 63 | issue= 5 | pages= 703-5 | pmid=27521443 | doi=10.1093/cid/ciw413 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27521443  }}</ref>
+*Intestinal schistosomiasis
+*Hepatosplenic schistosomiasis<ref name="pmid31246482">{{cite journal| author=Homeida M, Abdel-Gadir AF, Cheever AW, Bennett JL, Arbab BM, Ibrahium SZ et al.| title=Diagnosis of pathologically confirmed Symmers' periportal fibrosis by ultrasonography: a prospective blinded study. | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year= 1988 | volume= 38 | issue= 1 | pages= 86-91 | pmid=3124648 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3124648  }}</ref><ref name="pmid104415772">{{cite journal| author=Dessein AJ, Hillaire D, Elwali NE, Marquet S, Mohamed-Ali Q, Mirghani A et al.| title=Severe hepatic fibrosis in Schistosoma mansoni infection is controlled by a major locus that is closely linked to the interferon-gamma receptor gene. | journal=Am J Hum Genet | year= 1999 | volume= 65 | issue= 3 | pages= 709-21 | pmid=10441577 | doi=10.1086/302526 | pmc=1377977 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10441577  }}</ref>
+*Pulmonary schistosomiasis<ref name="pmid37228982">{{cite journal| author=Sarwat AK, Tag el Din MA, Bassiouni M, Ashmawi SS| title=Schistosomiasis of the lung. | journal=J Egypt Soc Parasitol | year= 1986 | volume= 16 | issue= 1 | pages= 359-66 | pmid=3722898 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3722898  }}</ref>
+*Genitourinary schistosomiasis
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Stool microscopy<ref name="pmid70428542">{{cite journal| author=Mahmoud AA| title=The ecology of eosinophils in schistosomiasis. | journal=J Infect Dis | year= 1982 | volume= 145 | issue= 5 | pages= 613-22 | pmid=7042854 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7042854  }}</ref>
+*Serologic tests include:
+**[[Hemagglutination|Indirect hemagglutination]]
+**[[Complement fixation]]
+**[[Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay]]
+**[[PCR]]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*[[Praziquantel]]<ref name="pmid249555232">{{cite journal| author=Cioli D, Pica-Mattoccia L, Basso A, Guidi A| title=Schistosomiasis control: praziquantel forever? | journal=Mol Biochem Parasitol | year= 2014 | volume= 195 | issue= 1 | pages= 23-9 | pmid=24955523 | doi=10.1016/j.molbiopara.2014.06.002 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24955523  }}</ref>
+*[[Oxamniquine]]
+|-
+! style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |[[Strongyloidiasis]]
+| style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |[[Strongyloides|''Strongyloidis Stercoralis'']]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Infection is contracted via direct contact with contaminated soil during agricultural, domestic, and recreational activities
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Approximately 30–100 million infected persons worldwide
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Tropical and subtropical regions
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Hyperinfection syndrome
+**[[Fever]]
+**[[Nausea and vomiting]]
+**[[Anorexia]]
+**[[Diarrhea]]
+**[[Abdominal pain]]
+**[[Dyspnea]]
+**[[Wheeze|Wheezing]]
+**[[Hemoptysis]]
+**[[Cough]]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Aspiration of duodenojejunal fluid is sometimes used to detect<ref name="pmid70364302">{{cite journal| author=Carroll SM, Karthigasu KT, Grove DI| title=Serodiagnosis of human strongyloidiasis by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. | journal=Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg | year= 1981 | volume= 75 | issue= 5 | pages= 706-9 | pmid=7036430 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7036430  }}</ref>
+*Stool microscopy
+*PCR, ELISA
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*[[Ivermectin]]<ref name="pmid119571272">{{cite journal| author=Zaha O, Hirata T, Kinjo F, Saito A, Fukuhara H| title=Efficacy of ivermectin for chronic strongyloidiasis: two single doses given 2 weeks apart. | journal=J Infect Chemother | year= 2002 | volume= 8 | issue= 1 | pages= 94-8 | pmid=11957127 | doi=10.1007/s101560200013 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11957127  }}</ref>
+*[[Albendazole]]<ref name="pmid84839922">{{cite journal| author=Archibald LK, Beeching NJ, Gill GV, Bailey JW, Bell DR| title=Albendazole is effective treatment for chronic strongyloidiasis. | journal=Q J Med | year= 1993 | volume= 86 | issue= 3 | pages= 191-5 | pmid=8483992 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8483992  }}</ref>
+|-
+! style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |[[Amoebiasis]]
+| style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |''[[Entamoeba histolytica|E. Histolytica]]''
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Transmitted by the fecal-oral route through contaminated drinking water or food.
+*Direct contact with infected individuals.
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Annual incidence of amoebiasis is approximately 50 million cases.<ref name="pmid17716437">{{cite journal| author=Valenzuela O, Morán P, Gómez A, Cordova K, Corrales N, Cardoza J et al.| title=Epidemiology of amoebic liver abscess in Mexico: the case of Sonora. | journal=Ann Trop Med Parasitol | year= 2007 | volume= 101 | issue= 6 | pages= 533-8 | pmid=17716437 | doi=10.1179/136485907X193851 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17716437  }}</ref><ref name="pmid17437396">{{cite journal| author=van Hal SJ, Stark DJ, Fotedar R, Marriott D, Ellis JT, Harkness JL| title=Amoebiasis: current status in Australia. | journal=Med J Aust | year= 2007 | volume= 186 | issue= 8 | pages= 412-6 | pmid=17437396 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17437396  }}</ref><ref name="pmid19540361">{{cite journal| author=Ximénez C, Morán P, Rojas L, Valadez A, Gómez A| title=Reassessment of the epidemiology of amebiasis: state of the art. | journal=Infect Genet Evol | year= 2009 | volume= 9 | issue= 6 | pages= 1023-32 | pmid=19540361 | doi=10.1016/j.meegid.2009.06.008 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19540361  }}</ref>
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*India
+*Africa
+*Mexico
+*Parts of Central and South America
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Asymptomatic
+*Mild [[diarrhea]] to severe [[dysentery]].
+*Fulminant amebic colitis.
+*[[Weight loss]]
+*[[Amebic dysentery]]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Stool microscopy
+*Antigen testing
+*PCR
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*[[Metronidazole]]
+*[[Tinidazole]]
+*[[Paromomycin]]
+*[[Diloxanide furoate]]
+*[[Iodoquinol]]
+|-
+! style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |[[Taeniasis]]
+| style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |
+''[[Taenia saginata]]''  (beef [[Tapeworms|tapeworm]])<br>
+''[[Taenia solium]]'', ( pork tapeworm)<ref name="pmid97985864">{{cite journal| author=Forrester JE, Bailar JC, Esrey SA, José MV, Castillejos BT, Ocampo G| title=Randomised trial of albendazole and pyrantel in symptomless trichuriasis in children. | journal=Lancet | year= 1998 | volume= 352 | issue= 9134 | pages= 1103-8 | pmid=9798586 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9798586  }}</ref>
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Consumption of undercooked beef
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Approximately 50 million human have cysticercosis.
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Europe
+*Parts of Asia
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Most human carriers are asymptomatic.
+*Symptoms may include
+*[[Nausea and vomiting|Nausea]]
+*[[Anorexia]]
+*[[Epigastric pain]]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Stool microscopy
+*Peripheral [[eosinophilia]]
+*ELISA
+*PCR
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*[[Albendazole]]
+|-
+! style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |[[Trichuriasis]]
+| style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |''Trichuris trichiura''
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Ingestion of [[Fertilised|embryonated]]<nowiki/>eggs from contaminated drinking water and food.
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+* 600-800 million people are infected worldwide.
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*[[Endemic (epidemiology)|Endemic]] in [[Tropical disease|tropical]] and subtropical countries.
+* Southern United States
+*Incidence and prevalence rates are highest in children living in
+**Sub-Saharan Africa
+**Asia
+**Latin America
+**Caribbean
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Asymptomatic<ref name="pmid979858622">{{cite journal| author=Forrester JE, Bailar JC, Esrey SA, José MV, Castillejos BT, Ocampo G| title=Randomised trial of albendazole and pyrantel in symptomless trichuriasis in children. | journal=Lancet | year= 1998 | volume= 352 | issue= 9134 | pages= 1103-8 | pmid=9798586 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9798586  }}</ref>
+*Loose stool which may contain [[mucus]] and [[blood]]
+*Nocturnal stooling
+*[[Rectal prolapse]]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Stool microscopy
+*[[Proctoscopy]]
+**Demonstrates adult worms protruding from the bowel [[Mucous membrane|mucosa]].
+*[[Eosinophilia]]
+*[[Polymerase chain reaction]]
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*[[Mebendazole]]<ref name="pmid63781092">{{cite journal| author=Rossignol JF, Maisonneuve H| title=Benzimidazoles in the treatment of trichuriasis: a review. | journal=Ann Trop Med Parasitol | year= 1984 | volume= 78 | issue= 2 | pages= 135-44 | pmid=6378109 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=6378109  }}</ref>
+**500 mg PO q24h X 3 day '''(or)'''
+**100 mg PO q12h x 2 days
+*[[Albendazole]]<ref name="pmid219803732">{{cite journal| author=Steinmann P, Utzinger J, Du ZW, Jiang JY, Chen JX, Hattendorf J et al.| title=Efficacy of single-dose and triple-dose albendazole and mebendazole against soil-transmitted helminths and Taenia spp.: a randomized controlled trial. | journal=PLoS One | year= 2011 | volume= 6 | issue= 9 | pages= e25003 | pmid=21980373 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0025003 | pmc=3181256 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21980373  }}</ref>
+**400 mg POq24h
+|-
+! style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |[[Hymenolepiasis]]
+| style="background:#DCDCDC;" align="center" + |''Hymenolepis nana''
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Ingestion of infected eggs
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+* 50-75 million carriers of ''H. nana.''
+* 5 to 25% prevalence among children worldwide.
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |Most common in temperate zones<ref name="pmid194568362">{{cite journal| author=Utzinger J, Botero-Kleiven S, Castelli F, Chiodini PL, Edwards H, Köhler N et al.| title=Microscopic diagnosis of sodium acetate-acetic acid-formalin-fixed stool samples for helminths and intestinal protozoa: a comparison among European reference laboratories. | journal=Clin Microbiol Infect | year= 2010 | volume= 16 | issue= 3 | pages= 267-73 | pmid=19456836 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02782.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19456836  }}</ref>
+*South Europe
+*Russia
+*India
+*US
+*Latin America
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Asymptomatic<ref name="pmid265355132">{{cite journal| author=Muehlenbachs A, Bhatnagar J, Agudelo CA, Hidron A, Eberhard ML, Mathison BA et al.| title=Malignant Transformation of Hymenolepis nana in a Human Host. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2015 | volume= 373 | issue= 19 | pages= 1845-52 | pmid=26535513 | doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1505892 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26535513  }}</ref>
+*Heavy infections with >1000 worms can occur
+**Crampy [[abdominal pain]]
+**Diarrhea
+**Anorexia
+**Fatigue
+**Pruritus ani
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*Stool microscopy
+**FLOTAC method<ref name="pmid224610062">{{cite journal| author=Steinmann P, Cringoli G, Bruschi F, Matthys B, Lohourignon LK, Castagna B et al.| title=FLOTAC for the diagnosis of Hymenolepis spp. infection: proof-of-concept and comparing diagnostic accuracy with other methods. | journal=Parasitol Res | year= 2012 | volume= 111 | issue= 2 | pages= 749-54 | pmid=22461006 | doi=10.1007/s00436-012-2895-9 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22461006  }}</ref>
+| style="background:#F5F5F5;" + |
+*[[Praziquantel]]<ref name="pmid236187732">{{cite journal| author=Ohnishi K, Sakamoto N, Kobayashi K, Iwabuchi S, Nakamura-Uchiyama F| title=Therapeutic effect of praziquantel against Taeniasis asiatica. | journal=Int J Infect Dis | year= 2013 | volume= 17 | issue= 8 | pages= e656-7 | pmid=23618773 | doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2013.02.028 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23618773  }}</ref>
+*Prompt family screening or empiric treatment<ref name="pmid19805722">{{cite journal| author=Pawłowski ZS| title=Efficacy of low doses of praziquantel in taeniasis. | journal=Acta Trop | year= 1990 | volume= 48 | issue= 2 | pages= 83-8 | pmid=1980572 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1980572  }}</ref>
+|}
-==Reeferences==
+==References==
 {{Reflist|2}}