Portal hypertension pathophysiology

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief:

Overview

Portal venous pressure is determined by portal blood flow and portal vascular resistance. Increased portal vascular resistance is often the main factor responsible for it. The consequences of portal hypertension are due to blood being forced down alternate channels by the increased resistance to flow through the portal system. Due to formation of alternate channels initially some of the portal blood and later most of it is shunted directly to the systemic circulation bypassing the liver.

Pathophysiology

Physiology

  • Vascular resistance (R) has to be measured through Pouseuille’s law formula:<math display="block">R = {8 \eta L\over \pi r^4}</math>η= Viscosity; L= Length of vessel; r= Radius of vessel; π=22/7
  • When the (R) measurement formula is integrated in Ohm's law it becomes as the following:

<math display="block">\Delta P= P_2-P_1 = {Q\times 8 \eta L\over \pi r^4}</math>



 
 
Anatomical (irreversible component)
• Functional/vascular tone (reversible component)
 
 
 
 
 
• Opening of pre-existing vascular channels
• Formation of new vascular channels
 
• Systemic vasodilation (r)
• Increasing plasma volume (Q)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
lntra-hepatic resistance (r)
 
 
 
 
 
Portosystemic collaterals (Q)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Increased resistance to portal blood flow (R)
 
 
 
 
 
Increased systemic/splanchnic blood flow (Q)
(hyperdynamic circulation)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Elevated portal pressure (P)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Portal hypertension
 
 
 
 
 
 

Pathogenesis

Increased resistance

Hyperdynamic circulation in portal hypertension

Genetics

  • Genes involved in the pathogenesis of portal hypertension include the following:
Gene OMIM number Chromosome Function Gene expression in portal hypertension Notes
Deoxyguanosine kinase (DGUOK) 601465 2p13.1 DNA replication Point mutation Mutation leads to:
  • Liver failure
  • Neurologic abnormalities
  • Hypoglycemia
  • Increased lactate in body fluids
Adenosine deaminase (ADA) 608958 20q13.12 Irreversible deamination of adenosine and deoxyadenosine Reduced Some roles in modulating tissue response to IL-13

The main effects of IL-13 are:

  • Inflammation
  • Chemokine elaboration
  • Fibrosis
Phospholipase A2 (PL2G10) 603603 16p13.12 Catalyzing the release of fatty acids from phospholipids Reduced Identifier of PL2G10 expression:
  • Arachidonic acid (AA)
  • Prostaglandins (PG)
  • Leukotrienes (LT)
Cytochrome P450, family 4, subfamily F, polypeptide 3 (CYP4F3) 601270 19p13.12 Catalyzing the omega-hydroxylation of leukotriene B4 (LTB4) Increased -
Glutathione peroxidase 3 (GPX3) 138321 5q33.1 Glutathione reduction which reduce:
  • Hydrogen peroxide
  • Organic hydroperoxide
  • Lipid peroxides
Increased Protects various organs against oxidative stress:
  • Liver
  • Kidney
  • Breast
Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) 601531 14q12
  • Increasing intra-cellular calcium
  • Elevation of inositol 3-phosphate (IP3)
  • Inhibition of adenylyl cyclase
Mutated Increase blood flow to target tissue (esp. heart) about 4 times more.
Prostaglandin E receptor 2 (PTGER2) 176804 14q22.1 Various biological activities in diverse tissues Reduced -
Endothelin (EDN1) 131240 6p24.1 Vasoconstriction Increased The most powerful vasoconstrictor known
Endothelin receptor type A (EDNRA) 131243 4q31.22-q31.23 Vasoconstriction through binding to endothelin Reduced Directly related to hypertension in patients
Natriuretic peptide receptor 3 (NPR3) 108962 5p13.3 Maintenance of:
  • Blood pressure
  • Extracellular fluid volume
Increased Released from heart muscle in response to increase in wall tension
Cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) 107269 11p13
  • Lymphocyte activation
  • Lymph node homing
Reduced
  • Related to fibroblast growth factor (FGF)
  • Increased expression during collateral arteriogenesis
Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β 190180 19q13.2
  • Tissue transformation
  • Apoptosis regulation
Reduced Hyper-expressed in African-American hypertensive patients
Ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 4 (ENTPD4) 607577 8p21.3 Increasing phosphatase activity in intracellular membrane-bound nucleosides Reduced -
ATP-binding cassette, subfamily C, member 1 (ABCC1) 158343 16p13.11 Multi-drug resistance in small cell lung cancer Reduced -

Deoxyguanosine kinase (DGUOK) gene

  • Deoxyguanosine kinase (DGUOK) gene with OMIM number of 601465 is on chromosome 2p13.1.
  • Point mutation in deoxyguanosine kinase (DGUOK) gene causes progressive liver failure and neurologic abnormalities, hypoglycemia, and increased lactate in body fluids.[15]
  • Homozygous missense mutation in DGUOK gene found to be related with non-cirrhotic portal hypertension.[16]

Adenosine deaminase (ADA) gene

  • Adenosine deaminase (ADA) gene with OMIM number of 608958 is on chromosome 20q13.12. ADA gene is responsible for irreversible deamination of adenosine and deoxyadenosine in the purine catabolic pathway.
  • It is postulated that ADA gene expression is reduced in portal hypertension.[17]
  • Adenosine and adenosine signaling have some roles in modulating the tissue response to IL-13. The main effects of IL-13 are inflammation, chemokine elaboration, and fibrosis.[18]

Phospholipase A2 (PL2G10) gene

  • Phospholipase A2 (PL2G10) gene with OMIM number of 603603 is on chromosome 16p13.12. PL2G10 gene is responsible for catalyzing the release of fatty acids from phospholipids.
  • It is postulated that PL2G10 gene expression is reduced in portal hypertension.[17]
  • Arachidonic acid (AA), prostaglandins (PG), and leukotrienes (LT) measurements in patients of portal hypertension show the level of PL2G10 expression.

Cytochrome P450, family 4, subfamily F, polypeptide 3 (CYP4F3) gene

  • Cytochrome P450, family 4, subfamily F, polypeptide 3 (CYP4F3) gene with OMIM number of 601270 is on chromosome 19p13.12. CYP4F3 gene is responsible for catalyzing the omega-hydroxylation of leukotriene B4 (LTB4).
  • It is postulated that CYP4F3 gene expression is increased in portal hypertension.[17]

Glutathione peroxidase 3 (GPX3) gene

  • Glutathione peroxidase 3 (GPX3) gene with OMIM number of 138321 is on chromosome 5q33.1. GPX3 gene is responsible for catalyzing glutathione reduction; through which hydrogen peroxide, organic hydroperoxide, and lipid peroxides are reduced.[19]
  • It is postulated that GPX3 gene expression is increased in portal hypertension.[17]
  • Glutathione peroxidase 3 protects various organs against oxidative stress, such as liver, kidney, and breast.[20]

Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) gene

  • Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) gene with OMIM number of 601531 is on chromosome 14q12. LTB4 gene is responsible for increasing intra-cellular calcium, elevation of inositol 3-phosphate (IP3) concentration, and inhibition of adenylyl cyclase.[21]
  • LTB4 treatment for smooth muscle cells makes the blood flow to target tissue (esp. heart) about 4 times more. LTB4 also increase the smooth muscle cells migration in response to chemotaxis.[22]

Prostaglandin E receptor 2 (PTGER2) gene

  • Prostaglandin E receptor 2 (PTGER2) gene with OMIM number of 176804 is on chromosome 14q22.1. PTGER2 gene is responsible for various biological activities in diverse tissues.
  • It is postulated that PTGER2 gene expression is reduced in portal hypertension.[17]

Endothelin (EDN1) gene

  • Endothelin (EDN1) gene with OMIM number of 131240 is on chromosome 6p24.1. EDN1 gene is responsible for vasoconstriction and is secreted from endothelium.
  • Endothelin is the most powerful vasoconstrictor known.[23]
  • Increased expression of EDN1 is directly related to hypertension in patients.[24]

Endothelin receptor type A (EDNRA) gene

  • Endothelin receptor type A (EDNRA) gene with OMIM number of 131243 is on chromosome 4q31.22-q31.23. EDNRA gene is responsible for vasoconstriction through binding to endothelin.
  • It is postulated that EDNRA gene expression is reduced in portal hypertension.[17]
  • Increased expression of EDNRA is directly related to hypertension in patients.[24]

Natriuretic peptide receptor 3 (NPR3) gene

  • Natriuretic peptide receptor 3 (NPR3) gene with OMIM number of 108962 is on chromosome 5p13.3. NPR3 gene is responsible for maintenance of blood pressure and extracellular fluid volume.
  • It is postulated that NPR3 gene expression is elevated in portal hypertension.[17]
  • Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) released from heart muscle in response to increase in wall tension. When ANP binds to NPR3, it can modulate blood pressure.[25]

Cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) gene

  • Cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) gene with OMIM number of 107269 is on chromosome 11p13. CD44 gene is responsible for lymphocyte activation and lymph node homing.[26]
  • It is postulated that CD44 gene expression is reduced in portal hypertension.[17]
  • It is thought that CD44 is related to fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and can lead to fibrosis in various tissue.[27]
  • CD44 expression is increased during collateral arteriogenesis in mice.[28]

Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β gene

  • Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β gene with OMIM number of 190180 is on chromosome 19q13.2. TGF-β gene is responsible for tissue transformation and its dysregulation may lead to apoptosis.[29]
  • It is postulated that TGF-β gene expression is reduced in portal hypertension.[17]
  • TGF-β is hyper-expressed in African-American hypertensive patients.[30]

Ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 4 (ENTPD4) gene

  • Ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 4 (ENTPD4) gene with OMIM number of 607577 is on chromosome 8p21.3. ENTPD4 gene is responsible for increasing phosphatase activity in intracellular membrane-bound nucleosides.
  • It is postulated that TGF-β gene expression is reduced in portal hypertension.[17]

ATP-binding cassette, subfamily C, member 1 (ABCC1) gene

  • ATP-binding cassette, subfamily C, member 1 (ABCC1) gene with OMIM number of 158343 is on chromosome 16p13.11. ABCC1 gene is responsible for multi-drug resistance in small cell lung cancer.[31]
  • It is postulated that ABCC1 gene expression is reduced in portal hypertension.[17]

Associated Conditions

Gross Pathology

  • On gross pathology, [feature1], [feature2], and [feature3] are characteristic findings of [disease name].

Microscopic Pathology

  • On microscopic histopathological analysis, [feature1], [feature2], and [feature3] are characteristic findings of [disease name].

References

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