Zika virus infection overview: Difference between revisions
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Latest revision as of 00:46, 30 July 2020
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Zika virus infection Microchapters |
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Diagnosis |
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Zika virus infection overview On the Web |
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Yazan Daaboul, M.D.; Serge Korjian M.D.; Nate Michalak, B.A.; Yamuna Kondapally, M.B.B.S[2]
Overview
Zika fever is an infectious disease caused by Zika virus (ZIKV), an enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA flavivirus. Zika virus is a vector-borne pathogen usually transmitted via the Aedes mosquito that also transmits the dengue and chikungunya viruses. Human-to-human transmission by blood transfusions, sexual intercourse, or vertical transmission has also been reported. Once rare, the incidence of Zika virus infection rose dramatically during the 2014-2016 outbreak that started in Brazil. Zika virus infection has a clinical presentation similar to Dengue fever, yellow fever, West Nile virus, and Japanese encephalitis, but it is distinct in its milder clinical manifestations and short length of infection. Only one-fifth of patients exposed to Zika virus will develop clinical manifestations, typically 3 to 12 days after contracting the disease. Symptoms will typically begin with a mild headache and fever, then progress to include maculopapular rash spread across the body within 24 hours, followed by conjunctivitis, malaise, and back pain. Symptoms typically last 4 to 7 days. The prognosis is usually excellent, with the majority of patients recovering fully. Complications may include neurological sequelae, particularly Guillain-Barré syndrome. It is also thought that Zika virus infection is teratogenic and may be associated with microcephaly in newborns of infected mothers; this association is strongly suspected but has not yet been confirmed. A diagnosis of Zika virus infection is usually made by either RT-PCR or ELISA. Treatment is usually supportive, and antiviral therapy is generally not recommended. There are no vaccines available to prevent Zika virus infection. Since the virus is usually transmitted through mosquitoes, effective measures to avoid mosquito bites include using insect repellent, installing mosquito bed nets and window/door screens, wearing long sleeves and long pants, and removing potential breeding sites from indoor/outdoor premises. It is also recommended that men practice sexual abstinence and/or wear condoms when Zika virus infected is suspected to prevent sexual transmission. Once infected, individuals may be re-infected in the future.
Historical Perspective
Zika virus was first isolated from a Rhesus Monkey in 1947 in Uganda. The virus was first isolated from humans in 1968 in Nigeria. Since then, viral circulation and outbreaks have been documented throughout Asia and Africa. The most recent outbreak occurred in Brazil in April 2015.
Pathophysiology
Zika virus is a vector-borne pathogen usually transmitted via the Aedes mosquito, which also transmits the dengue and chikungunya viruses. Human-to-human transmission is thought to occur via blood transfusions, sexual transmission, and vertical transmission. Zika virus initially replicates in dendritic cells near the site of inoculation before spreading to lymph nodes and then the bloodstream.
Causes
Zika virus infection is cause by Zika virus, an enveloped, single stranded positive sense RNA virus. Zika virus is a type of flavivirus and is primarily transmitted through mosquitoes.
Classification
A schema for the classification of Zika virus infection has yet to be developed.
Differential Diagnosis
The broad-ranging clinical symptoms characteristic of Zika virus infection often cause it to be commonly misdiagnosed with multiple similar diseases that are also from the Flaviviridae virus family. Zika virus infection has similar clinical presentation to Dengue fever, yellow fever, West Nile virus, and Japanese encephalitis. Zika virus infection is distinct in its milder clinical manifestations and short length of infection. The association between Zika virus infection and complications that include congenital anomalies and neurological syndromes is also distinctive. Of note, patients bitten by mosquitoes may be concomitantly infected with Zika virus and other mosquito-borne infections, and co-infection should always be considered.
Epidemiology and Demographics
In 2015, Zika virus infection outbreaks rose dramatically, particularly in Brazil as observed by the manifestation of a correlated complication, microcephaly, in infants born to mothers with Zika virus infection, an incidence of approximately 100 per 100,000 infants. The majority of Zika virus infection cases are reported in South Africa and Tropical Asia. As of 2014, Zika virus infection outbreaks have also become more common in South America. Cases reported in other regions of the world are attributed to travel from areas with outbreaks. Zika virus infection affects all age groups, though newborn infants are particularly vulnerable due to the risk of transmission from their mothers upon birth.
Risk Factors
The most potent risk factor in the development of Zika virus infection is travel to endemic areas. Other risk factors include exposure to infected individuals via blood transfusion, sexual intercourse, or vertically to fetuses from infected mothers.
Natural History, Complications & Prognosis
Patients exposed to Zika virus will develop symptoms between 3 and 12 days after contracting the disease. Symptoms will typically begin with a mild headache and progress to include a maculopapular rash that spreads across the body within 24 hours, followed by fever, malaise, and back pain. The symptoms typically last 4-7 days. The prognosis is excellent, with the majority of patients recovering fully. Complications include neurological and congenital sequelae, particularly Guillain-Barré syndrome and microcephaly. The association between Zika virus infection and microcephaly has not yet been confirmed.
Diagnosis
History and Symptoms
The most common symptoms of Zika virus include fever and maculopapular rash. Additional symptoms include arthralgia, conjunctivitis, myalgia, headache, retro-orbital pain, and vomiting.
Physical Examination
Physical examination of patients with Zika virus infection is usually remarkable for fever and a maculopapular rash that often includes the face, trunk, and extremities (may include the palms and soles). Other physical examination findings include non-purulent conjunctivitis and edema.
Laboratory Findings
The diagnosis of Zika virus infection is usually made by detection of elevated IgM and IgG Zika virus antibodies by ELISA or viral RNA by RT-PCR. Non-specific lab findings include elevated markers of inflammation, mild neutropenia, normal leukocyte count or mild leukocytosis with normal platelet count and liver function tests.
Evaluation of Pregnant Women
According to the CDC, pregnant women suspected to have Zika virus infection may be advised to undergo amniocentesis and testing of histopathologic samples of the placenta and umbilical cord, frozen placental tissue and cord tissue for Zika virus RNA, and cord serum for Zika and dengue virus IgM and neutralizing antibodies.
Evaluation of Infants
According to the CDC, Zika virus testing is recommended among 1) infants with microcephaly or intracranial calcifications born to women who traveled to or resided in an area with Zika virus transmission while pregnant, or 2) infants born to mothers with positive or inconclusive test results for Zika virus infection. When an infant is born with microcephaly or intracranial calcifications to a mother who was potentially infected with Zika virus during pregnancy, the infant should be tested for Zika virus infection and given an ophthalmologic examination. For an infant without microcephaly or intracranial calcifications born to a mother who was potentially infected with Zika virus during pregnancy, subsequent evaluation is dependent on results from maternal Zika virus testing. Developmental monitoring and screening during the first year of life is recommended for all children with congenital Zika virus infection.
Collection and Submission of Fetal Tissues for Zika Virus Testing
In the USA, all fetal tissue suspected to be infected with Zika virus must be collected and submitted to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) for testing. Histopathology, immunohistochemical staining, and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) will be performed on fixed tissues. RT-PCR can be performed on frozen tissues.
Sexual Transmission Risk Assessment
At present, Zika virus testing for the assessment of risk for sexual transmission is of uncertain value, because current understanding of the incidence and duration of shedding in the male genitourinary tract is limited to one case report in which Zika virus persisted longer than in blood.[1] The CDC does not recommend testing men for the purpose of assessing risk for sexual transmission.
Other Diagnostic Studies
There are no other diagnostic studies associated with Zika virus infection.
Treatment
Medical Therapy
The mainstay of therapy for Zika virus infection is supportive care. Supportive care includes includes rest, adequate fluids intake, and administration of antipyretics and analgesics. Aspirin and other NSAIDs should be avoided until Dengue fever is ruled out, as NSAIDs may increase the risk of hemorrhage in cases of Dengue fever. Antiviral treatment is not recommended for the management of Zika virus infection. The general principles of medical therapy for the management of Zika virus apply to pregnant women. Treatment of congenital Zika virus infection is supportive and should address specific medical and neurodevelopmental issues for the infant’s particular needs. Mothers are encouraged to breastfeed infants even in areas where Zika virus is found, as available evidence indicates that the benefits of breastfeeding outweigh any potential risks associated with Zika virus infection transmission through breastmilk.[2][3]
Surgery
Surgery is not recommended for the management of Zika virus infection.
Prevention
There are no vaccines available to prevent Zika virus infection. Since the virus is usually transmitted through mosquitoes, effective preventive measures revolve around avoiding mosquito bites, which can be achieved by using insect repellent, installing mosquito bed nets and window/door screens, wearing long sleeves and long pants, and removing potential breeding sites from indoor/outdoor premises. Once infected, individuals may be re-infected in the future. Men who reside in or have traveled to an area of active Zika virus transmission who have a pregnant partner should abstain from sexual activity or consistently and correctly use condoms during sex (i.e., vaginal intercourse, anal intercourse, or fellatio) for the duration of the pregnancy. Men who reside in or have traveled to an area of active Zika virus transmission who are concerned about sexual transmission of Zika virus might consider abstaining from sexual activity or using condoms consistently and correctly during sex.
Travel Notice
The CDC has issued level 2 alert (practice enhanced precautions) for travelers to Cape Verde, the Carribean, Central America, Mexico, Pacific Islands, and South America.
Blood Donation
Zika virus may be detected in blood for a short period of time. Although rare, there have been reports of Zika virus transmission via blood transfusions. The risk of Zika virus infection in the continental USA due to blood transfusion is extremely low. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Red Cross, and the British National Health Service Blood and Transplant Agency announced that individuals who traveled to Zika-affected regions would be ineligible to donate blood for at least 28 days. The Canadian Blood Agency announced that individuals who traveled to Zika-affected regions would be ineligible to donate blood for at least 3 weeks (21 days).
CDC Response Planning Tips
Local, state, and territorial responses to Zika cases or an outbreak will differ in jurisdictions where Aedes species mosquitoes (Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus) are endemic, and, therefore, local mosquito populations could become infected with Zika virus. In the USA, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has developed resources to help state, local, and territorial public health officials prepare for potential Zika virus cases.
Risk-based Preparedness for States
All states need to provide public health information, particularly to pregnant women, and to assess returning travelers who may have contracted Zika virus infection. States with known Aedes aegypti mosquitoes need to intensively monitor for cases in returning travelers and prepare to find and stop clusters of Zika before they become widespread. States with Aedes albopictus mosquitos need to presume transmission is possible and be ready to prevent, detect, and respond to cases and possible clusters of Zika infection. The objective of a phased, risk-based response using Zika virus surveillance data is to implement public health interventions appropriate to the level of Zika virus risk in a community, county, or state.
Future or Investigational Therapies
There is currently no vaccine in advanced development to prevent Zika virus infection.
References
- ↑ Musso D, Roche C, Robin E, Nhan T, Teissier A, Cao-Lormeau VM (2015). "Potential sexual transmission of Zika virus". Emerg Infect Dis. 21 (2): 359–61. doi:10.3201/eid2102.141363. PMC 4313657. PMID 25625872.
- ↑ Besnard M, Lastere S, Teissier A, Cao-Lormeau V, Musso D (2014). "Evidence of perinatal transmission of Zika virus, French Polynesia, December 2013 and February 2014". Euro Surveill. 19 (13). PMID 24721538.
- ↑ Gartner LM, Morton J, Lawrence RA, Naylor AJ, O'Hare D, Schanler RJ; et al. (2005). "Breastfeeding and the use of human milk". Pediatrics. 115 (2): 496–506. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2491. PMID 15687461.