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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: M. Khurram Afzal, MD [2], Sogand Goudarzi, MD [3]

Differentiating [disease name] from other diseases on the basis of [symptom 1], [symptom 2], and [symptom 3]

On the basis [symptom 1], [symptom 2], and [symptom 3], [disease name] must be differentiated from [disease 1], [disease 2], [disease 3], [disease 4], [disease 5], and [disease 6].

Diseases Clinical manifestations Para-clinical findings Gold standard Additional findings
Symptoms Physical examination
Lab Findings Imaging
Symptoms of DVT Symptoms of Pulmonary Embolism Symptoms of Myocardial Infarction Tenderness in extremities Edema in extremities Warmth in extremities PT aPTT Doppler ultrasound Chest CT scan
Antithrombin III deficiency[1][2][3] + + - + + + Normal
  • Normal
  • Reduces the Increase in PTT after administration of heparin
Factor V Leiden mutation[4][5][6][7][8] + + + + + + N/A ↑
  • N/A
  • Inactivates factor Va and factor VIIIa
Protein C deficiency[9][10][11] + + - + + + Normal Normal / ↑
Protein S deficiency[11][12][13] + + - + + + Normal Normal / ↑
Prothrombin gene mutation[14][15][16] + + - + + + ↑ N/A
Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)[17][18][19] + + +/- + + + ↑ ↑
  • N/A
Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome[20][21][22][23][24] + + +/- + + + N/A ↑

References

  1. ↑ Patnaik MM, Moll S (November 2008). "Inherited antithrombin deficiency: a review". Haemophilia. 14 (6): 1229–39. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2516.2008.01830.x. PMID 19141163.
  2. ↑ Al Hadidi, Samer; Wu, Kristi; Aburahma, Ahmed; Alamarat, Zain (2017). "Family with clots: antithrombin deficiency". BMJ Case Reports: bcr-2017–221556. doi:10.1136/bcr-2017-221556. ISSN 1757-790X.
  3. ↑ Konecny F (January 2009). "Inherited trombophilic states and pulmonary embolism". J Res Med Sci. 14 (1): 43–56. PMC 3129068. PMID 21772860.
  4. ↑ Mannucci PM, Asselta R, Duga S, Guella I, Spreafico M, Lotta L, Merlini PA, Peyvandi F, Kathiresan S, Ardissino D (October 2010). "The association of factor V Leiden with myocardial infarction is replicated in 1880 patients with premature disease". J. Thromb. Haemost. 8 (10): 2116–21. doi:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2010.03982.x. PMID 20626623.
  5. ↑ Campello E, Spiezia L, Simioni P (December 2016). "Diagnosis and management of factor V Leiden". Expert Rev Hematol. 9 (12): 1139–1149. doi:10.1080/17474086.2016.1249364. PMID 27797270.
  6. ↑ Van Rooden CJ, Rosendaal FR, Meinders AE, Van Oostayen JA, Van Der Meer FJ, Huisman MV (February 2004). "The contribution of factor V Leiden and prothrombin G20210A mutation to the risk of central venous catheter-related thrombosis". Haematologica. 89 (2): 201–6. PMID 15003896.
  7. ↑ Dentali F, Pomero F, Borretta V, Gianni M, Squizzato A, Fenoglio L; et al. (2013). "Location of venous thrombosis in patients with FVL or prothrombin G20210A mutations: systematic review and meta-analysis". Thromb Haemost. 110 (1): 191–4. doi:10.1160/TH13-02-0163. PMID 23615845.
  8. ↑ Press RD, Bauer KA, Kujovich JL, Heit JA (November 2002). "Clinical utility of factor V leiden (R506Q) testing for the diagnosis and management of thromboembolic disorders". Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 126 (11): 1304–18. doi:10.1043/0003-9985(2002)126<1304:CUOFVL>2.0.CO;2. PMID 12421138.
  9. ↑ Bernard Khor & Elizabeth M. Van Cott (2010). "Laboratory tests for protein C deficiency". American journal of hematology. 85 (6): 440–442. doi:10.1002/ajh.21679. PMID 20309856. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  10. ↑ Pescatore SL (March 2001). "Clinical management of protein C deficiency". Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2 (3): 431–9. doi:10.1517/14656566.2.3.431. PMID 11336597.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Gustavo A. Rodriguez-Leal, Segundo Moran, Roberto Corona-Cedillo & Rocio Brom-Valladares (2014). "Portal vein thrombosis with protein C-S deficiency in a non-cirrhotic patient". World journal of hepatology. 6 (7): 532–537. doi:10.4254/wjh.v6.i7.532. PMID 25068006. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  12. ↑ Kristi J. Smock, Elizabeth A. Plumhoff, Piet Meijer, Peihong Hsu, Nicole D. Zantek, Nahla M. Heikal & Elizabeth M. Van Cott (2016). "Protein S testing in patients with protein S deficiency, factor V Leiden, and rivaroxaban by North American Specialized Coagulation Laboratories". Thrombosis and haemostasis. 116 (1): 50–57. doi:10.1160/TH15-12-0918. PMID 27075008. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. ↑ Ji M, Yoon SN, Lee W, Jang S, Park SH, Kim DY, Chun S, Min WK (October 2011). "Protein S deficiency with a PROS1 gene mutation in a patient presenting with mesenteric venous thrombosis following total colectomy". Blood Coagul. Fibrinolysis. 22 (7): 619–21. doi:10.1097/MBC.0b013e32834a0421. PMID 21799399.
  14. ↑ Cooper PC, Rezende SM (2007). "An overview of methods for detection of factor V Leiden and the prothrombin G20210A mutations". Int J Lab Hematol. 29 (3): 153–62. doi:10.1111/j.1751-553X.2007.00892.x. PMID 17474891.
  15. ↑ McGlennen RC, Key NS (2002). "Clinical and laboratory management of the prothrombin G20210A mutation". Arch Pathol Lab Med. 126 (11): 1319–25. doi:10.1043/0003-9985(2002)126<1319:CALMOT>2.0.CO;2. PMID 12421139.
  16. ↑ Dentali F, Pomero F, Borretta V, Gianni M, Squizzato A, Fenoglio L; et al. (2013). "Location of venous thrombosis in patients with FVL or prothrombin G20210A mutations: systematic review and meta-analysis". Thromb Haemost. 110 (1): 191–4. doi:10.1160/TH13-02-0163. PMID 23615845.
  17. ↑ Venugopal A (September 2014). "Disseminated intravascular coagulation". Indian J Anaesth. 58 (5): 603–8. doi:10.4103/0019-5049.144666. PMC 4260307. PMID 25535423.
  18. ↑ Makruasi N (November 2015). "Treatment of Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation". J Med Assoc Thai. 98 Suppl 10: S45–51. PMID 27276832.
  19. ↑ Cui S, Fu Z, Feng Y, Xie X, Ma X, Liu T; et al. (2018). "The disseminated intravascular coagulation score is a novel predictor for portal vein thrombosis in cirrhotic patients with hepatitis B." Thromb Res. 161: 7–11. doi:10.1016/j.thromres.2017.11.010. PMID 29178991.
  20. ↑ Lim W (2013). "Antiphospholipid syndrome". Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2013: 675–80. doi:10.1182/asheducation-2013.1.675. PMID 24319251.
  21. ↑ Pengo V, Tripodi A, Reber G, Rand JH, Ortel TL, Galli M, De Groot PG (October 2009). "Update of the guidelines for lupus anticoagulant detection. Subcommittee on Lupus Anticoagulant/Antiphospholipid Antibody of the Scientific and Standardisation Committee of the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis". J. Thromb. Haemost. 7 (10): 1737–40. doi:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2009.03555.x. PMID 19624461.
  22. ↑ Lim W (2013). "Antiphospholipid syndrome". Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2013: 675–80. doi:10.1182/asheducation-2013.1.675. PMID 24319251.
  23. ↑ Garcia D, Erkan D (2018). "Diagnosis and Management of the Antiphospholipid Syndrome". N Engl J Med. 378 (21): 2010–2021. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1705454. PMID 29791828.
  24. ↑ Kornacki J, Wirstlein P, Skrzypczak J (2012). "[Assessment of uterine arteries Doppler in the first half of pregnancy in women with thrombophilia]". Ginekol Pol. 83 (12): 916–21. PMID 23488294.

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [4]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Fahimeh Shojaei, M.D.

Overview

On the basis of seizure, visual disturbance, and constitutional symptoms, astrocytoma must be differentiated from oligodendroglioma, meningioma, hemangioblastoma, pituitary adenoma, schwannoma, primary CNS lymphoma, medulloblastoma, ependymoma, craniopharyngioma, pinealoma, AV malformation, brain aneurysm, bacterial brain abscess, tuberculosis, toxoplasmosis, hydatid cyst, CNS cryptococcosis, CNS aspergillosis, and brain metastasis.

Differentiating astrocytoma from other Diseases

Differentiating astrocytoma from other diseases on the basis of seizure, visual disturbance, and constitutional symptoms

On the basis of seizure, visual disturbance, and constitutional symptoms, astrocytoma must be differentiated from oligodendroglioma, meningioma, hemangioblastoma, pituitary adenoma, schwannoma, primary CNS lymphoma, medulloblastoma, ependymoma, craniopharyngioma, pinealoma, AV malformation, brain aneurysm, bacterial brain abscess, tuberculosis, toxoplasmosis, hydatid cyst, CNS cryptococcosis, CNS aspergillosis, and brain metastasis.

Diseases Clinical manifestations Para-clinical findings Gold
standard 		Additional findings
Symptoms Physical examination
Lab Findings MRI Immunohistopathology
Head-
ache 		Seizure Visual disturbance Constitutional Focal neurological deficit
Adult primary brain tumors Glioblastoma multiforme
[1][2][3] 		+ +/− +/− − + −
  • Pseudopalisading appearance
oligodendroglioma
[4][5][6] 		+ + +/− − + −
  • Chicken wire capillary pattern
  • Fried egg cell appearance
Meningioma
[7][8][9] 		+ +/− +/− − + −
  • Well circumscribed
  • Extra-axial mass
  • Whorled spindle cell pattern
  • May be associated with NF-2
Hemangioblastoma
[10][11][12][13] 		+ +/− +/− − + −
Pituitary adenoma
[14][15][3] 		− − + Bitemporal hemianopia − −
  • It is associated with MEN1 disease.
Schwannoma
[16][17][18][19] 		− − − − + −
  • Split-fat sign
  • Fascicular sign
  • Often have areas of hemosiderin
  • S100+
Primary CNS lymphoma
[20][21] 		+ +/− +/− − + −
  • Single mass with ring enhancement
Childhood primary brain tumors Pilocytic astrocytoma
[22][23][24] 		+ +/− +/− − + −
Medulloblastoma
[25][26][27] 		+ +/− +/− − + −
  • Homer wright rosettes
Ependymoma
[28][3] 		+ +/− +/− − + −
  • Hydrocephalus
  • Causes an unusually persistent, continuous headache in children.
Craniopharyngioma
[29][30][31][3] 		+ +/− + Bitemporal hemianopia − +
Pinealoma
[32][33][34] 		+ +/− +/− − + vertical gaze palsy
  • May cause prinaud syndrome (vertical gaze palsy, pupillary light-near dissociation, lid retraction and convergence-retraction nystagmus
Vascular AV malformation
[35][36][3] 		+ + +/− − +/− −
Brain aneurysm
[37][38][39][40][41] 		+ +/− +/− − +/− −
Infectious Bacterial brain abscess
[42][43] 		+ +/− +/− + +
  • Central hypodense signal and surrounding ring-enhancement in T1
  • Central hyperintense area surrounded by a well-defined hypointense capsule with surrounding edema in T2
  • Clinical presentation/ imaging
Tuberculosis
[44][3][45] 		+ +/− +/− + +
  • CSF analysis/ Imaging
Toxoplasmosis
[46][47] 		+ +/− +/− − +
  • Clinical presentation/ imaging
Hydatid cyst
[48][3] 		+ +/− +/− +/− +
  • Imaging
CNS cryptococcosis
[49] 		+ +/− +/− + +
  • We may see numerous acutely branching septate hyphae
CNS aspergillosis
[50] 		+ +/− +/− + +
  • Multiple abscesses
  • Ring enhancement
  • Peripheral low signal intensity on T2
  • We may see numerous acutely branching septate hyphae
Other Brain metastasis
[51][3] 		+ +/− +/− + + −
  • Based on the primary cancer type we may have different immunohistopathology findings.
  • History/ imaging
  • If there is any uncertainty about etiology, biopsy should be performed

ABBREVIATIONS

CNS=Central nervous system, AV=Arteriovenous, CSF=Cerebrospinal fluid, NF-2=Neurofibromatosis type 2, MEN-1=Multiple endocrine neoplasia, GFAP=Glial fibrillary acidic protein, HIV=Human immunodeficiency virus, BhCG=Human chorionic gonadotropin, ESR=Erythrocyte sedimentation rate, AFB=Acid fast bacilli

References

  1. ↑ Sathornsumetee S, Rich JN, Reardon DA (November 2007). "Diagnosis and treatment of high-grade astrocytoma". Neurol Clin. 25 (4): 1111–39, x. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2007.07.004. PMID 17964028.
  2. ↑ Pedersen CL, Romner B (January 2013). "Current treatment of low grade astrocytoma: a review". Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 115 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2012.07.002. PMID 22819718.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Mattle, Heinrich (2017). Fundamentals of neurology : an illustrated guide. Stuttgart New York: Thieme. ISBN 9783131364524.
  4. ↑ Smits M (2016). "Imaging of oligodendroglioma". Br J Radiol. 89 (1060): 20150857. doi:10.1259/bjr.20150857. PMC 4846213. PMID 26849038.
  5. ↑ Wesseling P, van den Bent M, Perry A (June 2015). "Oligodendroglioma: pathology, molecular mechanisms and markers". Acta Neuropathol. 129 (6): 809–27. doi:10.1007/s00401-015-1424-1. PMC 4436696. PMID 25943885.
  6. ↑ Kerkhof M, Benit C, Duran-Pena A, Vecht CJ (2015). "Seizures in oligodendroglial tumors". CNS Oncol. 4 (5): 347–56. doi:10.2217/cns.15.29. PMC 6082346. PMID 26478444.
  7. ↑ Zee CS, Chin T, Segall HD, Destian S, Ahmadi J (June 1992). "Magnetic resonance imaging of meningiomas". Semin. Ultrasound CT MR. 13 (3): 154–69. PMID 1642904.
  8. ↑ Shibuya M (2015). "Pathology and molecular genetics of meningioma: recent advances". Neurol. Med. Chir. (Tokyo). 55 (1): 14–27. doi:10.2176/nmc.ra.2014-0233. PMID 25744347.
  9. ↑ Begnami MD, Palau M, Rushing EJ, Santi M, Quezado M (September 2007). "Evaluation of NF2 gene deletion in sporadic schwannomas, meningiomas, and ependymomas by chromogenic in situ hybridization". Hum. Pathol. 38 (9): 1345–50. doi:10.1016/j.humpath.2007.01.027. PMC 2094208. PMID 17509660.
  10. ↑ Lonser RR, Butman JA, Huntoon K, Asthagiri AR, Wu T, Bakhtian KD, Chew EY, Zhuang Z, Linehan WM, Oldfield EH (May 2014). "Prospective natural history study of central nervous system hemangioblastomas in von Hippel-Lindau disease". J. Neurosurg. 120 (5): 1055–62. doi:10.3171/2014.1.JNS131431. PMC 4762041. PMID 24579662.
  11. ↑ Hussein MR (October 2007). "Central nervous system capillary haemangioblastoma: the pathologist's viewpoint". Int J Exp Pathol. 88 (5): 311–24. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2613.2007.00535.x. PMC 2517334. PMID 17877533.
  12. ↑ Lee SR, Sanches J, Mark AS, Dillon WP, Norman D, Newton TH (May 1989). "Posterior fossa hemangioblastomas: MR imaging". Radiology. 171 (2): 463–8. doi:10.1148/radiology.171.2.2704812. PMID 2704812.
  13. ↑ Perks WH, Cross JN, Sivapragasam S, Johnson P (March 1976). "Supratentorial haemangioblastoma with polycythaemia". J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry. 39 (3): 218–20. PMID 945331.
  14. ↑ Kucharczyk W, Davis DO, Kelly WM, Sze G, Norman D, Newton TH (December 1986). "Pituitary adenomas: high-resolution MR imaging at 1.5 T". Radiology. 161 (3): 761–5. doi:10.1148/radiology.161.3.3786729. PMID 3786729.
  15. ↑ Syro LV, Scheithauer BW, Kovacs K, Toledo RA, Londoño FJ, Ortiz LD, Rotondo F, Horvath E, Uribe H (2012). "Pituitary tumors in patients with MEN1 syndrome". Clinics (Sao Paulo). 67 Suppl 1: 43–8. PMC 3328811. PMID 22584705.
  16. ↑ Donnelly, Martin J.; Daly, Carmel A.; Briggs, Robert J. S. (2007). "MR imaging features of an intracochlear acoustic schwannoma". The Journal of Laryngology & Otology. 108 (12). doi:10.1017/S0022215100129056. ISSN 0022-2151.
  17. ↑ Feany MB, Anthony DC, Fletcher CD (May 1998). "Nerve sheath tumours with hybrid features of neurofibroma and schwannoma: a conceptual challenge". Histopathology. 32 (5): 405–10. PMID 9639114.
  18. ↑ Chen H, Xue L, Wang H, Wang Z, Wu H (July 2017). "Differential NF2 Gene Status in Sporadic Vestibular Schwannomas and its Prognostic Impact on Tumour Growth Patterns". Sci Rep. 7 (1): 5470. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-05769-0. PMID 28710469.
  19. ↑ Hardell, Lennart; Hansson Mild, Kjell; Sandström, Monica; Carlberg, Michael; Hallquist, Arne; Påhlson, Anneli (2003). "Vestibular Schwannoma, Tinnitus and Cellular Telephones". Neuroepidemiology. 22 (2): 124–129. doi:10.1159/000068745. ISSN 0251-5350.
  20. ↑ Chinn RJ, Wilkinson ID, Hall-Craggs MA, Paley MN, Miller RF, Kendall BE, Newman SP, Harrison MJ (December 1995). "Toxoplasmosis and primary central nervous system lymphoma in HIV infection: diagnosis with MR spectroscopy". Radiology. 197 (3): 649–54. doi:10.1148/radiology.197.3.7480733. PMID 7480733.
  21. ↑ Paulus, Werner (1999). "Classification, Pathogenesis and Molecular Pathology of Primary CNS Lymphomas". Journal of Neuro-Oncology. 43 (3): 203–208. doi:10.1023/A:1006242116122. ISSN 0167-594X.
  22. ↑ Sathornsumetee S, Rich JN, Reardon DA (November 2007). "Diagnosis and treatment of high-grade astrocytoma". Neurol Clin. 25 (4): 1111–39, x. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2007.07.004. PMID 17964028.
  23. ↑ Pedersen CL, Romner B (January 2013). "Current treatment of low grade astrocytoma: a review". Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 115 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2012.07.002. PMID 22819718.
  24. ↑ Mattle, Heinrich (2017). Fundamentals of neurology : an illustrated guide. Stuttgart New York: Thieme. ISBN 9783131364524.
  25. ↑ Dorwart, R H; Wara, W M; Norman, D; Levin, V A (1981). "Complete myelographic evaluation of spinal metastases from medulloblastoma". Radiology. 139 (2): 403–408. doi:10.1148/radiology.139.2.7220886. ISSN 0033-8419.
  26. ↑ Fruehwald-Pallamar, Julia; Puchner, Stefan B.; Rossi, Andrea; Garre, Maria L.; Cama, Armando; Koelblinger, Claus; Osborn, Anne G.; Thurnher, Majda M. (2011). "Magnetic resonance imaging spectrum of medulloblastoma". Neuroradiology. 53 (6): 387–396. doi:10.1007/s00234-010-0829-8. ISSN 0028-3940.
  27. ↑ Burger, P. C.; Grahmann, F. C.; Bliestle, A.; Kleihues, P. (1987). "Differentiation in the medulloblastoma". Acta Neuropathologica. 73 (2): 115–123. doi:10.1007/BF00693776. ISSN 0001-6322.
  28. ↑ Yuh, E. L.; Barkovich, A. J.; Gupta, N. (2009). "Imaging of ependymomas: MRI and CT". Child's Nervous System. 25 (10): 1203–1213. doi:10.1007/s00381-009-0878-7. ISSN 0256-7040.
  29. ↑ Brunel H, Raybaud C, Peretti-Viton P, Lena G, Girard N, Paz-Paredes A, Levrier O, Farnarier P, Manera L, Choux M (September 2002). "[Craniopharyngioma in children: MRI study of 43 cases]". Neurochirurgie (in French). 48 (4): 309–18. PMID 12407316.
  30. ↑ Prabhu, Vikram C.; Brown, Henry G. (2005). "The pathogenesis of craniopharyngiomas". Child's Nervous System. 21 (8–9): 622–627. doi:10.1007/s00381-005-1190-9. ISSN 0256-7040.
  31. ↑ Kennedy HB, Smith RJ (December 1975). "Eye signs in craniopharyngioma". Br J Ophthalmol. 59 (12): 689–95. PMC 1017436. PMID 766825.
  32. ↑ Ahmed SR, Shalet SM, Price DA, Pearson D (September 1983). "Human chorionic gonadotrophin secreting pineal germinoma and precocious puberty". Arch. Dis. Child. 58 (9): 743–5. PMID 6625640.
  33. ↑ Sano, Keiji (1976). "Pinealoma in Children". Pediatric Neurosurgery. 2 (1): 67–72. doi:10.1159/000119602. ISSN 1016-2291.
  34. ↑ Baggenstoss, Archie H. (1939). "PINEALOMAS". Archives of Neurology And Psychiatry. 41 (6): 1187. doi:10.1001/archneurpsyc.1939.02270180115011. ISSN 0096-6754.
  35. ↑ Kucharczyk, W; Lemme-Pleghos, L; Uske, A; Brant-Zawadzki, M; Dooms, G; Norman, D (1985). "Intracranial vascular malformations: MR and CT imaging". Radiology. 156 (2): 383–389. doi:10.1148/radiology.156.2.4011900. ISSN 0033-8419.
  36. ↑ Fleetwood, Ian G; Steinberg, Gary K (2002). "Arteriovenous malformations". The Lancet. 359 (9309): 863–873. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07946-1. ISSN 0140-6736.
  37. ↑ Chapman, Arlene B.; Rubinstein, David; Hughes, Richard; Stears, John C.; Earnest, Michael P.; Johnson, Ann M.; Gabow, Patricia A.; Kaehny, William D. (1992). "Intracranial Aneurysms in Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease". New England Journal of Medicine. 327 (13): 916–920. doi:10.1056/NEJM199209243271303. ISSN 0028-4793.
  38. ↑ Castori M, Voermans NC (October 2014). "Neurological manifestations of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome(s): A review". Iran J Neurol. 13 (4): 190–208. PMC 4300794. PMID 25632331.
  39. ↑ Schievink, W. I.; Raissi, S. S.; Maya, M. M.; Velebir, A. (2010). "Screening for intracranial aneurysms in patients with bicuspid aortic valve". Neurology. 74 (18): 1430–1433. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181dc1acf. ISSN 0028-3878.
  40. ↑ Germain DP (May 2017). "Pseudoxanthoma elasticum". Orphanet J Rare Dis. 12 (1): 85. doi:10.1186/s13023-017-0639-8. PMC 5424392. PMID 28486967.
  41. ↑ Farahmand M, Farahangiz S, Yadollahi M (October 2013). "Diagnostic Accuracy of Magnetic Resonance Angiography for Detection of Intracranial Aneurysms in Patients with Acute Subarachnoid Hemorrhage; A Comparison to Digital Subtraction Angiography". Bull Emerg Trauma. 1 (4): 147–51. PMC 4789449. PMID 27162847.
  42. ↑ Haimes, AB; Zimmerman, RD; Morgello, S; Weingarten, K; Becker, RD; Jennis, R; Deck, MD (1989). "MR imaging of brain abscesses". American Journal of Roentgenology. 152 (5): 1073–1085. doi:10.2214/ajr.152.5.1073. ISSN 0361-803X.
  43. ↑ Brouwer, Matthijs C.; Tunkel, Allan R.; McKhann, Guy M.; van de Beek, Diederik (2014). "Brain Abscess". New England Journal of Medicine. 371 (5): 447–456. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1301635. ISSN 0028-4793.
  44. ↑ Morgado, Carlos; Ruivo, Nuno (2005). "Imaging meningo-encephalic tuberculosis". European Journal of Radiology. 55 (2): 188–192. doi:10.1016/j.ejrad.2005.04.017. ISSN 0720-048X.
  45. ↑ Be NA, Kim KS, Bishai WR, Jain SK (March 2009). "Pathogenesis of central nervous system tuberculosis". Curr. Mol. Med. 9 (2): 94–9. PMC 4486069. PMID 19275620.
  46. ↑ Chinn RJ, Wilkinson ID, Hall-Craggs MA, Paley MN, Miller RF, Kendall BE, Newman SP, Harrison MJ (December 1995). "Toxoplasmosis and primary central nervous system lymphoma in HIV infection: diagnosis with MR spectroscopy". Radiology. 197 (3): 649–54. doi:10.1148/radiology.197.3.7480733. PMID 7480733.
  47. ↑ Helton KJ, Maron G, Mamcarz E, Leventaki V, Patay Z, Sadighi Z (November 2016). "Unusual magnetic resonance imaging presentation of post-BMT cerebral toxoplasmosis masquerading as meningoencephalitis and ventriculitis". Bone Marrow Transplant. 51 (11): 1533–1536. doi:10.1038/bmt.2016.168. PMID 27348541.
  48. ↑ Taslakian B, Darwish H (September 2016). "Intracranial hydatid cyst: imaging findings of a rare disease". BMJ Case Rep. 2016. doi:10.1136/bcr-2016-216570. PMC 5030532. PMID 27620198.
  49. ↑ McCarthy M, Rosengart A, Schuetz AN, Kontoyiannis DP, Walsh TJ (July 2014). "Mold infections of the central nervous system". N. Engl. J. Med. 371 (2): 150–60. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1216008. PMC 4840461. PMID 25006721.
  50. ↑ McCarthy M, Rosengart A, Schuetz AN, Kontoyiannis DP, Walsh TJ (July 2014). "Mold infections of the central nervous system". N. Engl. J. Med. 371 (2): 150–60. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1216008. PMC 4840461. PMID 25006721.
  51. ↑ Pope WB (2018). "Brain metastases: neuroimaging". Handb Clin Neurol. 149: 89–112. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-811161-1.00007-4. PMC 6118134. PMID 29307364.

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