Pertussis: Difference between revisions
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===Etiologic Agent=== | ===Etiologic Agent=== | ||
Bordetella pertussis, a gram-negative coccobacillus. | Bordetella pertussis, a gram-negative coccobacillus. | ||
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== Epidemiology and Demographics == | == Epidemiology and Demographics == | ||
This disease results in high morbidity and mortality in many countries every year. In the United States, 5000-7000 cases are reported each year. Incidence of pertussis has increased steadily since the 1980s. The incidence in 2002 was 3.01/100,000 when 8,296 cases of pertussis were reported. | This disease results in high morbidity and mortality in many countries every year. In the United States, 5000-7000 cases are reported each year. Incidence of pertussis has increased steadily since the 1980s. The incidence in 2002 was 3.01/100,000 when 8,296 cases of pertussis were reported. | ||
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===Trends in Pertussis Disease in the United States=== | ===Trends in Pertussis Disease in the United States=== | ||
In the United States, the highest recorded annual incidence of pertussis occurred in 1934 when greater than 260,000 cases were reported. The incidence of reported pertussis disease declined substantially as use of whole-cell DTP vaccines became widespread. By 1970, the reported incidence had declined greater than 99%; the fewest cases (1,010) were reported in 1976. However, since the early 1980s reported pertussis incidence has increased steadily. Cyclical peaks in incidence occurred in 1983, 1986, 1990, and in 1993 when 6,586 cases were reported -- more than in any year since 1976. The number of reported cases has increased in all age groups, but the increase is greatest among persons aged greater than or equal to 5 years. Nevertheless, infants and young children continue to have the highest risk for pertussis and its complications. | In the United States, the highest recorded annual incidence of pertussis occurred in 1934 when greater than 260,000 cases were reported. The incidence of reported pertussis disease declined substantially as use of whole-cell DTP vaccines became widespread. By 1970, the reported incidence had declined greater than 99%; the fewest cases (1,010) were reported in 1976. However, since the early 1980s reported pertussis incidence has increased steadily. Cyclical peaks in incidence occurred in 1983, 1986, 1990, and in 1993 when 6,586 cases were reported -- more than in any year since 1976. The number of reported cases has increased in all age groups, but the increase is greatest among persons aged greater than or equal to 5 years. Nevertheless, infants and young children continue to have the highest risk for pertussis and its complications. | ||
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== Transmission and Diagnosis == | == Transmission and Diagnosis == | ||
Microscopic identification of whipworm eggs in feces is evidence of infection. Because eggs may be difficult to find in light infections, a concentration procedure is recommended. Because the severity of symptoms depend on the worm burden, quantification of the latter (e.g. with the Kato-Katz technique) can prove useful. | Microscopic identification of whipworm eggs in feces is evidence of infection. Because eggs may be difficult to find in light infections, a concentration procedure is recommended. Because the severity of symptoms depend on the worm burden, quantification of the latter (e.g. with the Kato-Katz technique) can prove useful. | ||
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== Treatment == | == Treatment == | ||
Treatment with an effective [[antibiotic]] ([[erythromycin]] or [[azithromycin]]) shortens the infectious period but does not generally alter the outcome of the disease; however, when treatment is initiated during the catarrhal stage, symptoms may be less severe. Three [[macrolide]]s, [[erythromycin]], [[azithromycin]] and [[clarithromycin]] are used in the U.S. for treatment of pertussis; [[Co-trimoxazole|trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole]] is generally used when a macrolide is ineffective or is contraindicated. Close contacts who receive appropriate antibiotics (''chemoprophylaxis'') during the 7–21 day incubation period may be protected from developing symptomatic disease. Close contacts are defined as anyone coming into contact with the respiratory secretions of an infected person in the 21 days before or after the infected person's cough began. | Treatment with an effective [[antibiotic]] ([[erythromycin]] or [[azithromycin]]) shortens the infectious period but does not generally alter the outcome of the disease; however, when treatment is initiated during the catarrhal stage, symptoms may be less severe. Three [[macrolide]]s, [[erythromycin]], [[azithromycin]] and [[clarithromycin]] are used in the U.S. for treatment of pertussis; [[Co-trimoxazole|trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole]] is generally used when a macrolide is ineffective or is contraindicated. Close contacts who receive appropriate antibiotics (''chemoprophylaxis'') during the 7–21 day incubation period may be protected from developing symptomatic disease. Close contacts are defined as anyone coming into contact with the respiratory secretions of an infected person in the 21 days before or after the infected person's cough began. | ||
== Vaccines == | == Vaccines == | ||
Use of Acellular Pertussis Vaccines Among Infants and Young Children Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)''' | Use of Acellular Pertussis Vaccines Among Infants and Young Children Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)''' | ||
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===Whole-Cell Pertussis Vaccines=== | ===Whole-Cell Pertussis Vaccines=== | ||
Four diphtheria and tetanus toxoids combined with whole-cell pertussis (DTP) vaccines are presently licensed for use in the United States.@ Vaccines of this type, prepared from suspensions of inactivated Bordetella pertussis bacterial cells, have been licensed for routine vaccination of infants since the mid-1940s. Based on controlled efficacy trials conducted in the 1940s and on subsequent observational efficacy studies, a primary series comprising four doses of whole-cell DTP vaccine is considered 70%-90% effective in preventing serious pertussis disease. | Four diphtheria and tetanus toxoids combined with whole-cell pertussis (DTP) vaccines are presently licensed for use in the United States.@ Vaccines of this type, prepared from suspensions of inactivated Bordetella pertussis bacterial cells, have been licensed for routine vaccination of infants since the mid-1940s. Based on controlled efficacy trials conducted in the 1940s and on subsequent observational efficacy studies, a primary series comprising four doses of whole-cell DTP vaccine is considered 70%-90% effective in preventing serious pertussis disease. | ||
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===History of pertussis vaccine development=== | ===History of pertussis vaccine development=== | ||
Infection with pertussis induces immunity, but not lasting protective immunity, and a second attack is possible.<ref>http://files.dcp2.org/pdf/expressbooks/vaccine.pdf Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (Disease Control Priorities Project)Table 20.1, page 390 ©2006 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development | Infection with pertussis induces immunity, but not lasting protective immunity, and a second attack is possible.<ref>http://files.dcp2.org/pdf/expressbooks/vaccine.pdf Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (Disease Control Priorities Project)Table 20.1, page 390 ©2006 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development | ||
The World Bank | The World Bank | ||
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=== Current status of pertussis vaccines === | === Current status of pertussis vaccines === | ||
Pertussis vaccines are highly effective, strongly recommended, and save many infant lives every year. Though the protection they offer lasts only a few years, they are given so that immunity lasts through childhood, the time of greatest exposure and greatest risk.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Versteegh FGA, Schellekens JFP, Fleer A, Roord JJ. | title = Pertussis: a concise historical review including diagnosis, incidence, clinical manifestations and the role of treatment and vaccination in management. | journal = Rev Med Microbiol | year = 2005 | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 79–89 | url= http://www.revmedmicrobiol.com/pt/re/revmedmicrob/abstract.00013542-200508000-00001.htm }}</ref> The [[Immunization (medicine)|immunization]]s are given in combination with [[tetanus]] and [[diphtheria]] immunizations, at ages 2, 4, and 6 months, and later at 15–18 months and 4–6 years and 11 years. | Pertussis vaccines are highly effective, strongly recommended, and save many infant lives every year. Though the protection they offer lasts only a few years, they are given so that immunity lasts through childhood, the time of greatest exposure and greatest risk.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Versteegh FGA, Schellekens JFP, Fleer A, Roord JJ. | title = Pertussis: a concise historical review including diagnosis, incidence, clinical manifestations and the role of treatment and vaccination in management. | journal = Rev Med Microbiol | year = 2005 | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 79–89 | url= http://www.revmedmicrobiol.com/pt/re/revmedmicrob/abstract.00013542-200508000-00001.htm }}</ref> The [[Immunization (medicine)|immunization]]s are given in combination with [[tetanus]] and [[diphtheria]] immunizations, at ages 2, 4, and 6 months, and later at 15–18 months and 4–6 years and 11 years. | ||
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=== Whole-cell pertussis vaccine controversy === | === Whole-cell pertussis vaccine controversy === | ||
Much of the controversy surrounding the DTP vaccine in the 1970s and 1980s related to the question of whether the whole-cell pertussis component caused permanent brain injury in rare cases. Although it was well-established that the pertussis component of the DTP vaccine accounted for most of the minor local and systemic side effects in many vaccinated infants, several published studies failed to show a causal relationship between administration of the DTP vaccine and permanent brain injury. However, criticism of these studies and well-publicized anecdotal reports of DTP-induced permanent disability and death gave rise to anti-DTP movements.<ref name=Geier_2002>{{cite journal |author=Geier D, Geier M |title=The true story of pertussis vaccination: a sordid legacy? |journal=Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=249-84 |year=2002 |pmid=12211972}}</ref> | Much of the controversy surrounding the DTP vaccine in the 1970s and 1980s related to the question of whether the whole-cell pertussis component caused permanent brain injury in rare cases. Although it was well-established that the pertussis component of the DTP vaccine accounted for most of the minor local and systemic side effects in many vaccinated infants, several published studies failed to show a causal relationship between administration of the DTP vaccine and permanent brain injury. However, criticism of these studies and well-publicized anecdotal reports of DTP-induced permanent disability and death gave rise to anti-DTP movements.<ref name=Geier_2002>{{cite journal |author=Geier D, Geier M |title=The true story of pertussis vaccination: a sordid legacy? |journal=Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=249-84 |year=2002 |pmid=12211972}}</ref> | ||
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[[Category:Infectious disease]] | [[Category:Infectious disease]] | ||
[[Category:Emergency medicine]] | [[Category:Emergency medicine]] | ||
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Revision as of 17:39, 5 August 2011
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
Overview
Pertussis, also known as whooping cough, a highly contagious disease caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis; it derived its name from a characteristic severe hacking cough followed by a high-pitched intake of breath that sounds like "whoop"; a similar, milder disease is caused by B. parapertussis.[1] Worldwide, there are 30–50 million pertussis cases and about 300,000 deaths per year. Despite generally high coverage with the DTP and DTaP vaccines, pertussis is one of the leading causes of vaccine-preventable deaths world-wide. Most deaths occur in young infants who are either unvaccinated or incompletely vaccinated; three doses of the vaccine are necessary for complete protection against pertussis. Ninety percent of all cases occur in the developing world. However, in the winter of 2006, a New York school district [2] suffered a large pertussis outbreak with thirteen plus students falling victim to the infection. [3] Also in the fall of 2006, a pertussis outbreak struck New Trier High School, a public school in Winnetka, Illinois, with twenty-four high school students catching the disease. In response, the Cook County Department of Public Health provided vaccine, free of charge, to eligible students. Pertussis was recognizably described as early as 1578 by Guillaume de Baillou (1538-1616), but earlier reports date back at least to the 12th century.[2] B. pertussis was isolated in pure culture in 1906 by Jules Bordet and Octave Gengou, who also developed the first serology and vaccine. The complete B. pertussis genome of 4,086,186 base pairs was sequenced in 2002.
Etiologic Agent
Bordetella pertussis, a gram-negative coccobacillus.
Occurs through direct contact with discharges from respiratory mucous membranes of infected persons.
Epidemiology and Demographics
This disease results in high morbidity and mortality in many countries every year. In the United States, 5000-7000 cases are reported each year. Incidence of pertussis has increased steadily since the 1980s. The incidence in 2002 was 3.01/100,000 when 8,296 cases of pertussis were reported.
Major complications are most common among infants and young children and include hypoxia, apnea, pneumonia, seizures, encephalopathy, and malnutrition. Young children can die from pertussis and 13 children died in the United States in 2003. Most deaths occur among unvaccinated children or children too young to be vaccinated.
Trends in Pertussis Disease in the United States
In the United States, the highest recorded annual incidence of pertussis occurred in 1934 when greater than 260,000 cases were reported. The incidence of reported pertussis disease declined substantially as use of whole-cell DTP vaccines became widespread. By 1970, the reported incidence had declined greater than 99%; the fewest cases (1,010) were reported in 1976. However, since the early 1980s reported pertussis incidence has increased steadily. Cyclical peaks in incidence occurred in 1983, 1986, 1990, and in 1993 when 6,586 cases were reported -- more than in any year since 1976. The number of reported cases has increased in all age groups, but the increase is greatest among persons aged greater than or equal to 5 years. Nevertheless, infants and young children continue to have the highest risk for pertussis and its complications.
Risk Factors
Children who are too young to be fully vaccinated and those who have not completed the primary vaccination series are at highest risk for severe illness. Like measles, pertussis is highly contagious with up to 90% of susceptible household contacts developing clinical disease following exposure to an index case. Adolescents and adults become susceptible when immunity wanes.
Characterization
After a two day incubation period, pertussis in infants and young children is characterized initially by mild respiratory infection symptoms such as cough, sneezing, and runny nose (catarrhal stage). After one to two weeks, the cough changes character, with paroxysms of coughing followed by an inspiratory "whooping" sound (paroxysmal stage). Coughing fits may be followed by vomiting due to the sheer violence of the fit. In severe cases, the vomiting induced by coughing fits can lead to malnutrition. The fits that do occur on their own can also be triggered by yawning, stretching, laughing, or yelling. Coughing fits gradually diminish over one to two months during the convalescent stage. Other complications of the disease include pneumonia, encephalitis, pulmonary hypertension, and secondary bacterial superinfection.[3].
Because neither vaccination nor infection confers long-term immunity, infection of adolescents and adults is also common [4] Most adults and adolescents who become infected with Bordetella pertussis have been vaccinated or infected years previously. When there is residual immunity from previous infection or immunization, symptoms may be milder, such as a prolonged cough without the other classic symptoms of pertussis. Nevertheless, infected adults and adolescents can transmit the bacteria to susceptible individuals. Adults and adolescent family members are the major source of transmission of the bacteria to unimmunized or partially immunized infants, who are at greatest risk of severe complications from pertussis.
Transmission and Diagnosis
Microscopic identification of whipworm eggs in feces is evidence of infection. Because eggs may be difficult to find in light infections, a concentration procedure is recommended. Because the severity of symptoms depend on the worm burden, quantification of the latter (e.g. with the Kato-Katz technique) can prove useful.
Adults and adolescents are the primary reservoir for pertussis. Pertussis is spread by contact with airborne discharges from the mucous membranes of infected people, who are most contagious during the catarrhal stage. Because the symptoms during the catarrhal stage are nonspecific, pertussis is usually not diagnosed until the appearance of the characteristic cough of the paroxysmal stage.
Methods used in laboratory diagnosis include culturing of nasopharyngeal swabs on Bordet-Gengou medium, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunofluorescence (DFA), and serological methods.
The bacteria can be recovered from the patient only during the first three weeks of illness, rendering culturing and DFA useless after this period, although PCR may have some limited usefulness for an additional three weeks.
For most adults and adolescents, who often do not seek medical care until several weeks into their illness, serology is often used to determine whether antibody against pertussis toxin or another component of B. pertussis is present at high levels in the blood of the patient.
Treatment
Treatment with an effective antibiotic (erythromycin or azithromycin) shortens the infectious period but does not generally alter the outcome of the disease; however, when treatment is initiated during the catarrhal stage, symptoms may be less severe. Three macrolides, erythromycin, azithromycin and clarithromycin are used in the U.S. for treatment of pertussis; trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole is generally used when a macrolide is ineffective or is contraindicated. Close contacts who receive appropriate antibiotics (chemoprophylaxis) during the 7–21 day incubation period may be protected from developing symptomatic disease. Close contacts are defined as anyone coming into contact with the respiratory secretions of an infected person in the 21 days before or after the infected person's cough began.
Vaccines
Use of Acellular Pertussis Vaccines Among Infants and Young Children Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)
Concerns about the safety of whole-cell pertussis vaccines prompted development of acellular vaccines that are less likely to provoke adverse events because they contain purified antigenic components of Bordetella pertussis. Two diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis (DTaP) vaccines -- ACEL-IMUNE{Registered} * and Tripedia{Registered} ** -- have been licensed for several years, but (until recently) only for administration of the fourth and fifth doses in the series to children aged 15 months-6 years who previously had received three or more doses of diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and whole-cell pertussis (DTP) vaccine. Published reports indicate that, when administered to infants aged 2, 4, and 6 months, acellular pertussis vaccines are effective in preventing pertussis disease and associated with fewer local, systemic, and certain more serious adverse events than whole-cell pertussis vaccines. On the basis of these data, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has licensed three DTaP vaccines for use among children aged 6 weeks-6 years. Tripedia{Registered} is now licensed for the initial four doses, and ACEL-IMUNE{Registered} for all five doses of the diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis vaccination series. A third DTaP vaccine (Infanrix TM) *** was licensed in January 1997 for the initial four doses of the series. Tripedia{Registered}, ACEL-IMUNE{Registered}, and Infanrix TM are now recommended for routine vaccination of infants and young children, although whole-cell pertussis vaccines remain acceptable alternatives. Tripedia{Registered}, ACEL-IMUNE{Registered}, and Infanrix TM are recommended for all remaining doses in the schedule for children who have started the vaccination series with one, two, three, or four doses of whole-cell pertussis vaccines. In September 1996, FDA licensed the use of TriHIBit TM (ActHIB{Registered} reconstituted with Tripedia{Registered}) **** for the fourth dose in the series of vaccinations against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, and Haemophilus influenzae type b disease.
This statement a) provides general information regarding whole-cell pertussis vaccines currently licensed in the United States; b) summarizes results of recent studies of the immunogenicity, efficacy, and safety of acellular pertussis vaccines administered to infants and young children; c) presents recommendations for the use of Tripedia{Registered}, TriHIBit TM, ACEL-IMUNE{Registered}, and Infanrix TM vaccines; and d) supplements previous recommendations on pertussis vaccination.
Whole-Cell Pertussis Vaccines
Four diphtheria and tetanus toxoids combined with whole-cell pertussis (DTP) vaccines are presently licensed for use in the United States.@ Vaccines of this type, prepared from suspensions of inactivated Bordetella pertussis bacterial cells, have been licensed for routine vaccination of infants since the mid-1940s. Based on controlled efficacy trials conducted in the 1940s and on subsequent observational efficacy studies, a primary series comprising four doses of whole-cell DTP vaccine is considered 70%-90% effective in preventing serious pertussis disease.
Whole-cell DTP vaccines are commonly associated with several local adverse events (e.g., erythema, swelling, and pain at the injection site), fever, and other mild systemic events (e.g., drowsiness, fretfulness, and anorexia). More severe systemic events (e.g., convulsions {with or without fever} and hypotonic hyporesponsive episodes) occur less frequently (ratio of one case to 1,750 doses administered) among children who receive whole-cell DTP vaccine. Acute encephalopathy occurs even more rarely (ratio of 0-10.5 cases to one million doses administered). Experts disagree on whether whole-cell pertussis vaccine causes lasting brain damage, but agree that if the vaccine causes such damage it does so only rarely. Concerns about safety prompted the development of more purified (acellular) pertussis vaccines that are associated with a lower frequency of adverse events and are effective in preventing pertussis disease.
History of pertussis vaccine development
Infection with pertussis induces immunity, but not lasting protective immunity, and a second attack is possible.[5] Efforts to develop an inactivated whole-cell pertussis vaccine began soon after B. pertussis was grown in pure culture in 1906. In 1925, the Danish physician Thorvald Madsen was the first to test a whole-cell pertussis vaccine on a wide scale.<[6] He used the vaccine to control outbreaks in the Faroe Islands in the North Sea. In 1942, the American scientist Pearl Kendrick combined the whole-cell pertussis vaccine with diphtheria and tetanus toxoids to generate the first DTP combination vaccine. To minimize the frequent side effects caused by the pertussis component of the vaccine, the Japanese scientist Yugi Sato developed an acellular pertussis vaccine consisting of filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA) and pertussis toxin (PT), which are secreted by B. pertussis into the culture medium. Sato's acellular pertussis vaccine was used in Japan beginning in 1981.[7] Later versions of the acellular pertussis vaccine used in other countries consisted of additional defined components of B. pertussis and were often part of the DTaP combination vaccine.
Current status of pertussis vaccines
Pertussis vaccines are highly effective, strongly recommended, and save many infant lives every year. Though the protection they offer lasts only a few years, they are given so that immunity lasts through childhood, the time of greatest exposure and greatest risk.[8] The immunizations are given in combination with tetanus and diphtheria immunizations, at ages 2, 4, and 6 months, and later at 15–18 months and 4–6 years and 11 years.
The short term effectiveness of the vaccines and the presence of B. pertussis infection in adults and adolescents who may transmit the bacteria to infants have caused many in the medical field to call for booster immunizations at later ages. Although Canada, France, the U.S. and Germany now have approved booster shots for adolescents, adults, or both, other countries adhere to the tradition of discontinuing pertussis vaccination after the age of seven, from concerns that there are side effects associated with the first available "whole-cell" pertussis immunizations that tended to increase with age. The whole-cell vaccine is still used in poor countries, since it is cheaper than the newer and safer acellular formulation.
As the immunity from infection or vaccination lasts only a few years, the discontinuation of booster vaccination in older persons caused the emergence of a large pool of older persons lacking immunity, followed by an increase of adult-onset pertussis that accelerated beginning in about 2004. [9] This burgeoning outbreak is predicted to increasingly infect adults and adolescents with debilitating cases, but poses even more serious public health dangers to newborns. As adolescent and adult cases surge, newborns are again at risk of exposure to pertussis circulating in adolescents or adults in the community before the infants' vaccinations can be completed.
The decision to resume vaccinating teens and adults reflects in part that the newer acellular vaccine, known as DTaP, has greatly reduced the incidence of adverse effects observed with the earlier "whole-cell" pertussis vaccine. An acellular vaccine preparation for adults and adolescents has been approved in Canada, Europe, and the United States. In the U.S., the Food and Drug Administration has authorized both the use of the vaccines Boostrix (GlaxoSmithKline) for 10-18 year olds in May 2005 and Adacel (Sanofi Pasteur) for 11-64 year olds in August 2005.[10] These vaccines are recommended for all teens and adults within the indicated age ranges, except for those with a history of adverse reaction to the whole-cell pertussis vaccines. The most serious side-effects of traditional "whole-cell" pertussis immunizations were neurological: and included seizures and hypotonic episodes.
Whole-cell pertussis vaccine controversy
Much of the controversy surrounding the DTP vaccine in the 1970s and 1980s related to the question of whether the whole-cell pertussis component caused permanent brain injury in rare cases. Although it was well-established that the pertussis component of the DTP vaccine accounted for most of the minor local and systemic side effects in many vaccinated infants, several published studies failed to show a causal relationship between administration of the DTP vaccine and permanent brain injury. However, criticism of these studies and well-publicized anecdotal reports of DTP-induced permanent disability and death gave rise to anti-DTP movements.[11]
By the late 1970s, publicity about adverse reactions and deaths following pertussis vaccination caused the immunization rate to fall in several countries, including Great Britain, Sweden, and Japan. In many cases, a dramatic increase in the incidence of pertussis followed.[12] These developments led Yugi Sato to introduce a safer acellular version of the pertussis vaccine for Japan in 1981. Nevertheless, other countries continued to use the whole-cell DTP formulation.
In the United States, low profit margins and an increase in vaccine-related lawsuits led many manufacturers to stop producing the DTP vaccine by the early 1980s. In 1982, the television documentary "DTP: Vaccine Roulette" depicted the lives of children whose severe disabilities were blamed on the DTP vaccine. The negative publicity generated by the documentary led to a tremendous increase in the number of lawsuits filed against vaccine manufacturers.[13] By 1985, manufacturers of vaccines had difficulty obtaining liability insurance. The price of the DTP vaccine skyrocketed, leading to shortages around the country. Only one manufacturer of the DPT vaccine remained in the U.S. by the end of 1985. To avert a vaccine crisis, Congress in 1986 passed the National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act (NCVIA), which established a federal no-fault system to compensate victims of injury caused by mandated vaccines.[14] Since then, the prices of vaccines have stabilized, and the number of lawsuits filed against DTP manufacturers has dwindled. The majority of claims that have been filed through the NCVIA have been related to injuries allegedly caused by the whole-cell DTP vaccine. The acellular pertussis vaccine was approved in the United States in 1992 for use in the combination DTaP vaccine. Research has shown the acellular vaccine to be safe, with few reports of adverse effects.[4] Although the whole-cell DTP vaccine is no longer used in the United States, it is still purchased by the World Health Organization and distributed to developing nations because of its much reduced cost compared to the acellular DTaP vaccine.
References
- ↑ Finger H, von Koenig CHW (1996). Bordetella–Clinical Manifestations. In: Barron's Medical Microbiology (Barron S et al, eds.) (4th ed. ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.
- ↑ Versteegh FGA, Schellekens JFP, Fleer A, Roord JJ. (2005). "Pertussis: a concise historical review including diagnosis, incidence, clinical manifestations and the role of treatment and vaccination in management". Rev Med Microbiol. 16 (3): 79–89.
- ↑ Mattoo S, Cherry JD (2005). "Molecular pathogenesis, epidemiology, and clinical manifestations of respiratory infections due to Bordetella pertussis and other Bordetella subspecies". Clin Microbiol Rev. 18 (2): 326–82. PMID 15831828.
- ↑ Hewlett EL, Edwards KM (2005). "Pertussis--not just for kids". New Eng J Med. 352 (12): 1215–1222.
- ↑ http://files.dcp2.org/pdf/expressbooks/vaccine.pdf Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (Disease Control Priorities Project)Table 20.1, page 390 ©2006 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org E-mail: feedback@worldbank.org
- ↑ Baker JP, Katz SL (2004). "Childhood vaccine development: an overview". Pediatr. Res. 55 (2): 347–56. PMID 14630981.
- ↑ Sato Y, Kimura M, Fukumi H (1984). "Development of a pertussis component vaccine in Japan". Lancet. 1 (8369): 122–6. PMID 6140441.
- ↑ Versteegh FGA, Schellekens JFP, Fleer A, Roord JJ. (2005). "Pertussis: a concise historical review including diagnosis, incidence, clinical manifestations and the role of treatment and vaccination in management". Rev Med Microbiol. 16 (3): 79–89.
- ↑ Enduring and Painful, Pertussis Leaps Back -- By KATE MURPHY New York Times -- February 22, 2005
- ↑ "Tetanus Toxoid, Reduced Diphtheria Toxoid and Acellular Pertussis Vaccine Adsorbed, ADACEL, Aventis Pasteur Ltd". Retrieved 1 May. Unknown parameter
|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help); Check date values in:|accessdate=(help) - ↑ Geier D, Geier M (2002). "The true story of pertussis vaccination: a sordid legacy?". Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences. 57 (3): 249–84. PMID 12211972.
- ↑ Gangarosa EJ, Galazka AM, Wolfe CR, Phillips LM, Gangarosa RE, Miller E, Chen RT (1998). "Impact of anti-vaccine movements on pertussis control: the untold story". Lancet. 351 (9099): 356–61. PMID 9652634.
- ↑ Evans G (2006). "Update on vaccine liability in the United States: presentation at the National Vaccine Program Office Workshop on strengthening the supply of routinely recommended vaccines in the United States, 12 February 2002". Clin. Infect. Dis. 42 Suppl 3: S130–7. PMID 16447135.
- ↑ Smith MH (1988). "National Childhood Vaccine Injury Compensation Act". Pediatrics. 82 (2): 264–9. PMID 3399300.
External links
- Pertussis at Todar's Online Textbook of Bacteriology
- Pertussis: new insights in diagnosis, incidence and clinical manifestations, F.G.A. Versteegh, Thesis, 2005
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