|
|
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| __NOTOC__
| | #redirect:[[Norovirus infection]] |
| {{Taxobox
| |
| | name = ''Norovirus''
| |
| | image = Norwalk.jpg
| |
| | image_width = 250px
| |
| | image_caption = Transmission electron micrograph of noroviruses. The bar = 50 nm
| |
| | virus_group = IV
| |
| | familia = ''[[Caliciviridae]]''
| |
| | genus = ''Norovirus''
| |
| }}
| |
| {{CMG}}
| |
| {{SI}}
| |
| | |
| ==Overview==
| |
| '''Norovirus''' (was "Norwalk-like viruses")<ref name=species> [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/Ictv/fs_calic.htm#Genus3 ICTVdB] Family 00.012. Caliciviridae</ref>, an [[RNA virus]] of the [[Caliciviridae]] [[taxonomic rank|taxonomic]] [[family (biology)|family]], causes approximately 90% of [[epidemic]] non-bacterial outbreaks of [[gastroenteritis]] around the world,<ref name="pmid12692541">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Lindesmith L, Moe C, Marionneau S, ''et al''
| |
| |title=Human susceptibility and resistance to Norwalk virus infection
| |
| |journal=Nat. Med.
| |
| |volume=9
| |
| |issue=5
| |
| |pages=548–53
| |
| |year=2003
| |
| |pmid=12692541
| |
| |doi=10.1038/nm860
| |
| }}</ref><ref name="cdcfactsheet">{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/revb/gastro/norovirus-factsheet.htm |title=Norovirus: Technical Fact Sheet |publisher=National Center for Infectious Diseases, CDC}}</ref> and is responsible for 50% of all [[foodborne]] [[outbreak]]s of gastroenteritis in the US.<ref name="pmid15705329">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Widdowson MA, Sulka A, Bulens SN, ''et al''
| |
| |title=Norovirus and foodborne disease, United States, 1991-2000
| |
| |journal=Emerging Infect. Dis.
| |
| |volume=11
| |
| |issue=1
| |
| |pages=95–102
| |
| |year=2005
| |
| |pmid=15705329
| |
| |doi=
| |
| |url=http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol11no01/04-0426.htm
| |
| }}</ref> Norovirus affects people of all ages. The viruses are transmitted by [[human feces|faecally]] contaminated food or water and by person-to-person contact.<ref name="pmid16968608">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Goodgame R
| |
| |title=Norovirus gastroenteritis
| |
| |journal=Curr Gastroenterol Rep
| |
| |volume=8
| |
| |issue=5
| |
| |pages=401–8
| |
| |year=2006
| |
| |pmid=16968608
| |
| | |
| |doi=10.1007/s11894-006-0026-4
| |
| }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| After [[infection]], [[immunity (medical)|immunity]] to norovirus is not complete nor long-lasting.<ref name="pmid15709009">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Lindesmith L, Moe C, Lependu J, Frelinger JA, Treanor J, Baric RS
| |
| |title=Cellular and humoral immunity following Snow Mountain virus challenge
| |
| |journal=J. Virol.
| |
| |volume=79
| |
| |issue=5
| |
| |pages=2900–9
| |
| |year=2005
| |
| |pmid=15709009
| |
| |doi=10.1128/JVI.79.5.2900-2909.2005
| |
| |url=http://jvi.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15709009
| |
| }}</ref> There is an [[genetic|inherited]] predisposition to infection and people whose [[blood type]] can be detected in their [[saliva]] are more often infected.<ref name="pmid12692541">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Lindesmith L, Moe C, Marionneau S, ''et al''
| |
| |title=Human susceptibility and resistance to Norwalk virus infection
| |
| |journal=Nat. Med.
| |
| |volume=9
| |
| |issue=5
| |
| |pages=548–53
| |
| |year=2003
| |
| |pmid=12692541
| |
| |doi=10.1038/nm860
| |
| }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Outbreaks of norovirus [[disease]] often occur in closed or semi-closed communities, such as long-term care facilities, hospitals, prisons, dormitories, and cruise ships where once the virus has been introduced, the infection spreads very rapidly by either person-to-person transmission or through contaminated food.<ref name="pmid18177970">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Noda M, Fukuda S, Nishio O
| |
| |title=Statistical analysis of attack rate in norovirus foodborne outbreaks
| |
| |journal=Int J Food Microbiol
| |
| |volume=
| |
| |issue=
| |
| | |
| |pages=216
| |
| |year=2007
| |
| |pmid=18177970
| |
| |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.11.073
| |
| |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0168-1605(07)00662-9
| |
| }}</ref> Many norovirus outbreaks have been traced to food that was handled by one infected person.<ref name="pmid14672828">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Koopmans M, Duizer E
| |
| |title=Foodborne viruses: an emerging problem
| |
| |journal=Int. J. Food Microbiol.
| |
| |volume=90
| |
| |issue=1
| |
| |pages=23–41
| |
| |year=2004
| |
| |pmid=14672828
| |
| | |
| |doi=10.1016/S0168-1605(03)00169-7
| |
| |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0168160503001697
| |
| }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Norovirus is rapidly killed by [[sodium hypochlorite|chlorine-based]] [[disinfectant]]s, but because the [[virion|virus particle]] does not have a [[lipid]] [[viral envelope|envelope]], it is less susceptible to [[alcohol]]s and [[detergent]]s.<ref name="pmid16765204">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Jimenez L, Chiang M
| |
| |title=Virucidal activity of a quaternary ammonium compound disinfectant against feline calicivirus: a surrogate for norovirus
| |
| |journal=Am J Infect Control
| |
| |volume=34
| |
| |issue=5
| |
| |pages=269–73
| |
| |year=2006
| |
| |pmid=16765204
| |
| |doi=10.1016/j.ajic.2005.11.009
| |
| |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0196-6553(06)00078-2
| |
| }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| There are different [[genotype|genogroups]] of norovirus and the majority of noroviruses that infect humans are classified into genogroup G1 and G2.<ref name="pmid10752550">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Vinjé J, Green J, Lewis DC, Gallimore CI, Brown DW, Koopmans MP
| |
| |title=Genetic polymorphism across regions of the three open reading frames of "Norwalk-like viruses"
| |
| |journal=Arch. Virol.
| |
| |volume=145
| |
| |issue=2
| |
| |pages=223–41
| |
| |year=2000
| |
| |pmid=10752550
| |
| |doi=
| |
| |url=http://link.springer.de/link/service/journals/00705/bibs/0145002/01450223.htm
| |
| }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==Historical Perspective==
| |
| Originally, norovirus was named after [[Norwalk, Ohio]], where an outbreak of acute [[gastroenteritis]] occurred among children at an [[primary education|elementary school]] in November 1968. In 1972, immune electron microscopy on stored [[Human feces|stool]] samples identified a virus, which was given the name Norwalk virus. Numerous outbreaks with similar symptoms have been reported since. The [[cloning]] and [[sequencing]] of the Norwalk virus genome showed that these viruses have a genomic organization consistent with viruses belonging to the family [[Caliciviridae]].<ref name="pmid9015097">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Kapikian AZ
| |
| |title=Overview of viral gastroenteritis
| |
| |journal=Arch. Virol. Suppl.
| |
| |volume=12
| |
| |issue=
| |
| |pages=7–19
| |
| |year=1996
| |
| |pmid=9015097
| |
| |doi=
| |
| |issn=
| |
| }}</ref> The name norovirus (''Norovirus'' for the genus) was approved by the [[International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]] in 2002. <ref>ICTVdB Management (2006). 00.012.0.03. Norovirus. In: ICTVdB - The Universal Virus Database, version 4. Büchen-Osmond, C. (Ed), Columbia University, New York, USA </ref>
| |
| | |
| Common names of the illness caused by noroviruses are winter vomiting disease, viral [[gastroenteritis]] and acute non-bacterial gastroenteritis<ref name="pmid16968608">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Goodgame R
| |
| |title=Norovirus gastroenteritis
| |
| |journal=Curr Gastroenterol Rep
| |
| |volume=8
| |
| |issue=5
| |
| |pages=401–8
| |
| |year=2006
| |
| |pmid=16968608
| |
| | |
| |doi=10.1007/s11894-006-0026-4
| |
| |issn=
| |
| }}</ref>, also colloquially known as "[[stomach flu]]" (a broad name which can also refer to gastric inflammation caused by other viruses and bacteria).
| |
| | |
| Some previously used names which can be used for [[PubMed]] and other internet searches are Norwalk virus, Norwalk-like virus, SRSVs (Small Round Structured Viruses), Sapporo virus and Snow Mountain.<ref name="pmid3036438">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Appleton H
| |
| |title=Small round viruses: classification and role in food-borne infections
| |
| |journal=Ciba Found. Symp.
| |
| |volume=128
| |
| |issue=
| |
| |pages=108–25
| |
| |year=1987
| |
| |pmid=3036438
| |
| |doi=
| |
| }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| == Relative frequency of disease ==
| |
| Only the [[common cold]] is reported more frequently than viral gastroenteritis as a cause of illness in the U.S. Although viral gastroenteritis is caused by a number of viruses, it is estimated that noroviruses are responsible for about 1/3 of the cases over the 6-to-24-month age group. In developing countries the percentage of individuals who have developed immunity at an early age is very high. In the U.S. the percentage increases gradually with age, reaching 50% in the population over 18 years of age. Immunity, however, is not permanent and reinfection can occur. Recent studies demonstrate that [[blood type]]s B and AB confer partial protection against symptomatic infection.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?doi=10.1086/339883&erFrom=-6346711085704863031Guest/
| |
| |accessdate=2007-02-05 |title=Norwalk Virus Infection and Disease Is Associated with ABO Histo-Blood Group Type |publisher=[[The Journal of Infectious Diseases]]|date=2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://jvi.asm.org/cgi/content/full/76/23/12335/ |accessdate=2007-02-05 |title=Binding of Norwalk Virus-Like Particles to ABH Histo-Blood Group Antigens Is Blocked by Antisera from Infected Human Volunteers or Experimentally Vaccinated Mice |publisher=[[Journal of Virology]] |date=2002}}</ref>
| |
| | |
| == Course of disease and complications ==
| |
| Norovirus causes acute [[gastroenteritis]] that develops between 24 and 48 hours after exposure with a median of 33-36 hours, and lasts for 24-60 hours.<ref name="cdcfactsheet"/> Severe illness is rare: although people are frequently treated in emergency rooms/A&E, they are rarely admitted to the hospital. The number of deaths from norovirus in the US is estimated to be around 300 each year, with most of these occurring in the very young, elderly and persons with weakened immune systems.
| |
| | |
| == Detection of norovirus in foods==
| |
| Routine protocols to detect norovirus (norovirus RNA) in clams and oysters by RT-PCR (reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction) are being employed by governmental laboratories such as the FDA in the USA. However, routine methods to detect the virus on other food items are not readily available due to the variable nature of different food items affecting concentration and extraction of the virus and presence of factors that make PCR (Polymerase chain reaction) analysis techniques ineffective.<ref name="pmid10804149">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Shieh Y, Monroe SS, Fankhauser RL, Langlois GW, Burkhardt W, Baric RS
| |
| |title=Detection of norwalk-like virus in shellfish implicated in illness
| |
| |journal=J. Infect. Dis.
| |
| |volume=181 Suppl 2
| |
| |issue=
| |
| |pages=S360–6
| |
| |year=2000
| |
| |pmid=10804149
| |
| |doi=
| |
| |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?JID990682
| |
| |issn=
| |
| }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ==Outbreaks==
| |
| <!-- Due to the frequency of outbreaks, it has been decided to include only once in 20 year events and the largest cruise ship outbreak. Before adding any outbreak, please discuss it's notability on [[Talk:Norovirus#Proposal - Notable outbreaks]], thanks -->
| |
| | |
| *In [[November 2006]], 679 (17%) out of 3,970 passengers and crew members aboard the trans-Atlantic [[Carnival Cruise Lines]]' ''[[Carnival Liberty]]'', one of the world's largest cruise ships, contracted the virus. <ref>
| |
| {{cite web
| |
| | title = Investigation Update on the Carnival Liberty
| |
| | work = [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC)
| |
| | publisher = [[United States Department of Health and Human Services]]
| |
| | date = [[25 November]] [[2006]]
| |
| | url = http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/vsp/surv/outbreak/2006/nov13carnivalliberty.htm
| |
| }}
| |
| </ref>
| |
|
| |
| ==Microbiology==
| |
| ===Classification===
| |
| [[Image:Norovirus 4.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Transmission electron micrograph of Norovirus particles in faeces]]
| |
| | |
| Noroviruses (NoV) are a genetically diverse group of single stranded RNA, nonenveloped viruses belonging to the Caliciviridae family.<ref name=health> [http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/cda-phlncd-norwalk.htm Department of Health and Ageing] Norovirus laboratory case definition</ref> According to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Virus, the [[genus]] Norovirus has one species which is called "Norwalk virus" and assigned the abbreviation "NV". Serotypes, strains and isolates include:<ref name=species/>
| |
| *Desert Shield virus [U04469] (Hu/NLV/DSV395/1990/SR)
| |
| *Lordsdale virus [X86557] (Hu/NLV/LD/1993/UK)
| |
| *Mexico virus [U22498] (Hu/NLV/MX/1989/MX)
| |
| *Norwalk virus [M87661] (Hu/NLV/NV/1968/US)
| |
| *Hawaii virus [U07611] (Hu/NLV/HV/1971/US)
| |
| *Snow Mountain virus [L23831] (Hu/NLV/SMV/1976/US)
| |
| *Southampton virus [L07418] (Hu/NLV/SHV/1991/UK)
| |
| | |
| "Noroviruses are a major cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide, often causing explosive outbreaks in institutions. They are highly contagious, with an inoculum of as few as ten particles being able to cause infection. Transmission occurs through ingesting contaminated food and water and by person-to-person spread. Transmission is predominantly faecal-oral but may be airborne due to aerosolisation of vomitus [...] Noroviruses commonly isolated in cases of acute gastroenteritis belong to two genogroups: genogroup I (GI) includes Norwalk virus, Desert Shield virus and Southampton virus and II (GII) which includes Bristol virus, Lordsdale virus, Toronto virus, Mexico virus, Hawaii virus and Snow Mountain virus."<ref name=health/>
| |
| | |
| Noroviruses can genetically be classified into 5 different genogroups (GI, GII, GIII, GIV, and GV) which can be further divided into different genetic clusters or [[genotype]]s. For example genogroup II, the most prevalent human genogroup, presently contains 19 genotypes. Genogroups I, II and IV infect humans, whereas genogroup III infects [[Bovinae|bovine species]] and genogroup V has recently been isolated in mice.<ref name="pmid17953996">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Ramirez S, Giammanco GM, De Grazia S, Colomba C, Martella V, Arista S
| |
| |title=Genotyping of GII.4 and GIIb norovirus RT-PCR amplicons by RFLP analysis
| |
| |journal=J. Virol. Methods
| |
| |volume=147
| |
| |issue=2
| |
| |pages=250–6
| |
| |year=2008
| |
| |pmid=17953996
| |
| |doi=10.1016/j.jviromet.2007.09.005
| |
| |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0166-0934(07)00362-X
| |
| |issn=
| |
| }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| Noroviruses from Genogroup II, genotype 4 (abbreviated as GII.4) account for the majority of adult outbreaks of [[gastroenteritis]] and often sweep across the globe. Recent examples include US95/96-US strain, associated with global outbreaks in the mid- to late-90s, [[Farmington Hills]] virus associated with outbreaks in [[Europe]] and the [[United States]] in 2002 and in 2004 Hunter virus was associated with outbreaks in [[Europe]], [[Japan]] and [[Australasia]]. In 2006 there was another large increase in NoV infection around the globe.<ref name="pmid18177226">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Tu ET, Bull RA, Greening GE, Hewitt J, Lyon MJ, Marshall JA, McIver CJ, Rawlinson WD, White PA
| |
| |title=Epidemics of gastroenteritis during 2006 were associated with the spread of norovirus GII.4 variants 2006a and 2006b
| |
| |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis.
| |
| |volume=46
| |
| |issue=3
| |
| |pages=413–20
| |
| |year=2008
| |
| |pmid=18177226
| |
| |doi=10.1086/525259
| |
| |url=http://bjr.birjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=18177226
| |
| |issn=
| |
| }}</ref> In December, 2007 there was an outbreak at a country club in northern California where around 80-100 people were infected. Two new GII.4 variants caused around 80% of those Norovirus associated outbreaks and they have been termed 2006a and 2006b. Recent reports have shown a link between blood group and susceptibility to infection by norovirus.<ref name="pmid12825167">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Huang P, Farkas T, Marionneau S, Zhong W, Ruvoën-Clouet N, Morrow AL, Altaye M, Pickering LK, Newburg DS, LePendu J, Jiang X
| |
| |title=Noroviruses bind to human ABO, Lewis, and secretor histo-blood group antigens: identification of 4 distinct strain-specific patterns
| |
| |journal=J. Infect. Dis.
| |
| |volume=188
| |
| |issue=1
| |
| |pages=19–31
| |
| |year=2003
| |
| |pmid=12825167
| |
| | |
| |doi=10.1086/375742
| |
| |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?JID30248
| |
| }}</ref><ref name="pmid15890909">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Huang P, Farkas T, Zhong W, Tan M, Thornton S, Morrow AL, Jiang X
| |
| |title=Norovirus and histo-blood group antigens: demonstration of a wide spectrum of strain specificities and classification of two major binding groups among multiple binding patterns
| |
| |journal=J. Virol.
| |
| |volume=79
| |
| |issue=11
| |
| |pages=6714–22
| |
| |year=2005
| |
| |pmid=15890909
| |
| |doi=10.1128/JVI.79.11.6714-6722.2005
| |
| |url=http://jvi.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15890909
| |
| }}</ref><ref name="pmid15688291">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Rockx BH, Vennema H, Hoebe CJ, Duizer E, Koopmans MP
| |
| |title=Association of histo-blood group antigens and susceptibility to norovirus infections
| |
| |journal=J. Infect. Dis.
| |
| |volume=191
| |
| |issue=5
| |
| |pages=749–54
| |
| |year=2005
| |
| |pmid=15688291
| |
| |doi=10.1086/427779
| |
| |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?JID33169
| |
| }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Virus structure===
| |
| Noroviruses contain a [[Sense (molecular biology)|positive-sense]] [[RNA]] [[genome]] of approximately 7.5 [[Base pair#Length measurements|kbp]], encoding a major structural [[protein]] (VP1) of about 58~60 [[kDa]] and a minor [[capsid]] protein (VP2).<ref name="pmid10804143">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Clarke IN, Lambden PR
| |
| |title=Organization and expression of calicivirus genes
| |
| |journal=J. Infect. Dis.
| |
| |volume=181 Suppl 2
| |
| |issue=
| |
| |pages=S309–16
| |
| |year=2000
| |
| |pmid=10804143
| |
| |doi=
| |
| |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?JID990679
| |
| |issn=
| |
| }}</ref> The virus particles demonstrate an amorphous surface structure when visualized using [[electron microscopy]] and are between 27-38 [[Meter#SI prefixed forms of metre|nm]] in size.<ref name="pmid11444031">{{cite journal
| |
| |author=Prasad BV, Crawford S, Lawton JA, Pesavento J, Hardy M, Estes MK
| |
| |title=Structural studies on gastroenteritis viruses
| |
| |journal=Novartis Found. Symp.
| |
| |volume=238
| |
| |issue=
| |
| |pages=26–37; discussion 37–46
| |
| |year=2001
| |
| |pmid=11444031
| |
| |doi=
| |
| |issn=
| |
| }}</ref>
| |
| | |
| == References ==
| |
| {{reflist|2}}
| |
| | |
| == External links ==
| |
| * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/7169347.stm BBC News Jan 2008 - Stomach bug sweeping the country]
| |
| * [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/revb/gastro/norovirus-qa.htm CDC Viral Gastroenteritis FAQs]: Center for Disease Control and Prevention of Food Illness Fact Sheet
| |
| * [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/id_norovirusFS.html "Norovirus in Healthcare Facilities Fact Sheet"], CDC, released [[December 21]], 2006
| |
| * [http://www.wandsworth-pct.nhs.uk/pdf/factsheets/WinterVomitingSRSV_NLV.pdf Winter Vomiting Disease] – UK government factsheet
| |
| {{viruses}}
| |
| <br>
| |
| | |
| [[Category:Viruses]]
| |
| | |
| [[da:Roskildesyge]]
| |
| [[de:Norovirus]]
| |
| [[fr:Virus de Norwalk]]
| |
| [[ko:노로바이러스]]
| |
| [[nl:Norovirus]]
| |
| [[ja:ノロウイルス]]
| |
| [[no:Norovirus]]
| |
| [[fi:Norovirukset]]
| |
| [[sv:Vinterkräksjuka]]
| |
| [[tr:Norwalk virüsü]]
| |
| [[zh:诺罗病毒]]
| |
| | |
| {{WH}}
| |
| {{WS}}
| |
| {{jb1}}
| |