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==Causes==
==Causes==
===Common Causes===
===Common Causes===
Common [[causes]] of nasopharyngeal carcinoma may include:
Common [[causes]] of nasopharyngeal carcinoma may include:<ref name="JiaQin2012">{{cite journal|last1=Jia|first1=Wei-Hua|last2=Qin|first2=Hai-De|title=Non-viral environmental risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma: A systematic review|journal=Seminars in Cancer Biology|volume=22|issue=2|year=2012|pages=117–126|issn=1044579X|doi=10.1016/j.semcancer.2012.01.009}}</ref><ref name="JiaLuo2010">{{cite journal|last1=Jia|first1=Wei-Hua|last2=Luo|first2=Xiang-Yu|last3=Feng|first3=Bing-Jian|last4=Ruan|first4=Hong-Lian|last5=Bei|first5=Jin-Xin|last6=Liu|first6=Wen-Sheng|last7=Qin|first7=Hai-De|last8=Feng|first8=Qi-Sheng|last9=Chen|first9=Li-Zhen|last10=Yao|first10=Shugart Yin|last11=Zeng|first11=Yi-Xin|title=Traditional Cantonese diet and nasopharyngeal carcinoma risk: a large-scale case-control study in Guangdong, China|journal=BMC Cancer|volume=10|issue=1|year=2010|issn=1471-2407|doi=10.1186/1471-2407-10-446}}</ref><ref name="GuoJohnson2009">{{cite journal|last1=Guo|first1=Xiuchan|last2=Johnson|first2=Randall C.|last3=Deng|first3=Hong|last4=Liao|first4=Jian|last5=Guan|first5=Li|last6=Nelson|first6=George W.|last7=Tang|first7=Mingzhong|last8=Zheng|first8=Yuming|last9=de The|first9=Guy|last10=O'Brien|first10=Stephen J.|last11=Winkler|first11=Cheryl A.|last12=Zeng|first12=Yi|title=Evaluation of nonviral risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma in a high-risk population of Southern China|journal=International Journal of Cancer|volume=124|issue=12|year=2009|pages=2942–2947|issn=00207136|doi=10.1002/ijc.24293}}</ref><ref name="MaxwellKumar2009">{{cite journal|last1=Maxwell|first1=Jessica H.|last2=Kumar|first2=Bhavna|last3=Feng|first3=Felix Y.|last4=McHugh|first4=Jonathan B.|last5=Cordell|first5=Kitrina G.|last6=Eisbruch|first6=Avraham|last7=Worden|first7=Francis P.|last8=Wolf|first8=Gregory T.|last9=Prince|first9=Mark E.|last10=Moyer|first10=Jeffrey S.|last11=Teknos|first11=Theodoros N.|last12=Chepeha|first12=Douglas B.|last13=Stoerker|first13=Jay|last14=Walline|first14=Heather|last15=Carey|first15=Thomas E.|last16=Bradford|first16=Carol R.|title=HPV-positive/p16-positive/EBV-negative nasopharyngeal carcinoma in white North Americans|journal=Head & Neck|year=2009|pages=NA–NA|issn=10433074|doi=10.1002/hed.21216}}</ref><ref name="ChanLo2014">{{cite journal|last1=Chan|first1=Yap-Hang|last2=Lo|first2=Ching-Man|last3=Lau|first3=Hiu-Ying|last4=Lam|first4=Tai-Hing|title=Vertically transmitted nasopharyngeal infection of the human papillomavirus: Does it play an aetiological role in nasopharyngeal cancer?|journal=Oral Oncology|volume=50|issue=5|year=2014|pages=326–329|issn=13688375|doi=10.1016/j.oraloncology.2013.12.025}}</ref><ref name="DoganHedberg2014">{{cite journal|last1=Dogan|first1=Snjezana|last2=Hedberg|first2=Matthew L.|last3=Ferris|first3=Robert L.|last4=Rath|first4=Tanya J.|last5=Assaad|first5=Adel M.|last6=Chiosea|first6=Simion I.|title=Human papillomavirus and Epstein-Barr virus in nasopharyngeal carcinoma in a low-incidence population|journal=Head & Neck|volume=36|issue=4|year=2014|pages=511–516|issn=10433074|doi=10.1002/hed.23318}}</ref><ref name="StenmarkMcHugh2014">{{cite journal|last1=Stenmark|first1=Matthew H.|last2=McHugh|first2=Jonathan B.|last3=Schipper|first3=Matthew|last4=Walline|first4=Heather M.|last5=Komarck|first5=Christine|last6=Feng|first6=Felix Y.|last7=Worden|first7=Francis P.|last8=Wolf|first8=Gregory T.|last9=Chepeha|first9=Douglas B.|last10=Prince|first10=Mark E.|last11=Bradford|first11=Carol R.|last12=Mukherji|first12=Suresh K.|last13=Eisbruch|first13=Avraham|last14=Carey|first14=Thomas E.|title=Nonendemic HPV-Positive Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma: Association With Poor Prognosis|journal=International Journal of Radiation Oncology*Biology*Physics|volume=88|issue=3|year=2014|pages=580–588|issn=03603016|doi=10.1016/j.ijrobp.2013.11.246}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
*[[EBV infection]] : EBV infection
| author = [[Radha Raghupathy]], [[Edwin Pun Hui]] & [[Anthony Tak Cheung Chan]]
*[[HPV infection]]
| title = Epstein-Barr virus as a paradigm in nasopharyngeal cancer: from lab to clinic
*Consumption of salted fish as a source of N-nitrosamine
| journal = [[American Society of Clinical Oncology educational book. American Society of Clinical Oncology. Annual Meeting]]
 
| pages = 149–153
EBV infection is perhaps the most extensively studied
| year = 2014
 
| month =
aetiological factor for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. On the
| doi = 10.14694/EdBook_AM.2014.34.149
 
| pmid = 24857071
basis of in-situ hybridisation techniques to EBV-encoded
}}</ref><ref name="PathmanathanPrasad1995">{{cite journal|last1=Pathmanathan|first1=Rajadurai|last2=Prasad|first2=Umapati|last3=Sadler|first3=Robert|last4=Flynn|first4=Kathryn|last5=Raab-Traub|first5=Nancy|title=Clonal Proliferations of Cells Infected with Epstein–Barr Virus in Preinvasive Lesions Related to Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=333|issue=11|year=1995|pages=693–698|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJM199509143331103}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
 
| author = [[A. S. Chan]], [[K. F. To]], [[K. W. Lo]], [[K. F. Mak]], [[W. Pak]], [[B. Chiu]], [[G. M. Tse]], [[M. Ding]], [[X. Li]], [[J. C. Lee]] & [[D. P. Huang]]
RNAs, the virus is detected exclusively in all tumour cells
| title = High frequency of chromosome 3p deletion in histologically normal nasopharyngeal epithelia from southern Chinese
 
| journal = [[Cancer research]]
but not in normal nasopharyngeal epithelium, suggesting
| volume = 60
 
| issue = 19
that EBV activation is necessary in the pathogenesis of
| pages = 5365–5370
 
| year = 2000
nasopharyngeal carcinoma. This notion is further
| month = October
 
| pmid = 11034072
supported by reports that similar techniques undertaken
}}</ref>
 
on preinvasive lesions identifi ed the presence of EBV even
 
during the initial phases of malignant transformation.6,7
 
Yet, the inability to detect EBV in nasopharyngeal biopsy
 
samples from high-risk individuals suggests that other
 
factors are needed for the EBV-infected epithelial cell to
 
undergo malignant transformation. Recent work has
 
proposed that deregulation of cell-cycle checkpoint
 
through p16 inactivation and cyclin D1 overexpression
 
promotes maintenance of the viral genome, favouring
 
transition of low-grade dysplasia to higher grade lesions.8,9
 
Intrinsic genetic determinants such as 3p and 9p deletions
 
have also been suggested as mechanisms of susceptibility
 
to EBV infection and its downstream eff ects.10 Epigenetic
 
modifi cations that are associated with a tumorigenic
 
phenotype have been identifi ed in EBV-infected epithelial
 
cells and were shown to persist even in the absence of the
 
virus (appendix).


*[[EBV infection]]: Role of EBV infection in the pathogenesis of nasopharyngeal carcinoma is established. Detection of EBV DNA and EBV gene expression even in the first phases of tumor transformation in all tumor cells confirmed this role.
*[[HPV infection]]: HPV infection is associated with the non-endemic form of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. The patients with HPV positive nasopharyngeal carcinoma has poor prognosis rather than the EBV positive ones.
*Consumption of salted fish: N-nitrosamine in salted fish acts as a carcinogenic on nasopharyngeal cells. Individuals who start consumption of salted fish from their childhood have a greater risk to develop NPC rather than the ones who start in their adulthood.
[[Category: (name of the system)]]
[[Category: (name of the system)]]
==References==
==References==

Revision as of 18:53, 5 March 2019

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Homa Najafi, M.D.[2]Faizan Sheraz, M.D. [3]

Overview

Common causes of nasopharyngeal carcinoma include Epstein Barr virus (EBV infection), Human Papillomavirus (HPV infection), and consumption of salted fish as a source of N-nitrosamine.

Causes

Common Causes

Common causes of nasopharyngeal carcinoma may include:[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]

  • EBV infection: Role of EBV infection in the pathogenesis of nasopharyngeal carcinoma is established. Detection of EBV DNA and EBV gene expression even in the first phases of tumor transformation in all tumor cells confirmed this role.
  • HPV infection: HPV infection is associated with the non-endemic form of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. The patients with HPV positive nasopharyngeal carcinoma has poor prognosis rather than the EBV positive ones.
  • Consumption of salted fish: N-nitrosamine in salted fish acts as a carcinogenic on nasopharyngeal cells. Individuals who start consumption of salted fish from their childhood have a greater risk to develop NPC rather than the ones who start in their adulthood.

References

  1. ↑ Jia, Wei-Hua; Qin, Hai-De (2012). "Non-viral environmental risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma: A systematic review". Seminars in Cancer Biology. 22 (2): 117–126. doi:10.1016/j.semcancer.2012.01.009. ISSN 1044-579X.
  2. ↑ Jia, Wei-Hua; Luo, Xiang-Yu; Feng, Bing-Jian; Ruan, Hong-Lian; Bei, Jin-Xin; Liu, Wen-Sheng; Qin, Hai-De; Feng, Qi-Sheng; Chen, Li-Zhen; Yao, Shugart Yin; Zeng, Yi-Xin (2010). "Traditional Cantonese diet and nasopharyngeal carcinoma risk: a large-scale case-control study in Guangdong, China". BMC Cancer. 10 (1). doi:10.1186/1471-2407-10-446. ISSN 1471-2407.
  3. ↑ Guo, Xiuchan; Johnson, Randall C.; Deng, Hong; Liao, Jian; Guan, Li; Nelson, George W.; Tang, Mingzhong; Zheng, Yuming; de The, Guy; O'Brien, Stephen J.; Winkler, Cheryl A.; Zeng, Yi (2009). "Evaluation of nonviral risk factors for nasopharyngeal carcinoma in a high-risk population of Southern China". International Journal of Cancer. 124 (12): 2942–2947. doi:10.1002/ijc.24293. ISSN 0020-7136.
  4. ↑ Maxwell, Jessica H.; Kumar, Bhavna; Feng, Felix Y.; McHugh, Jonathan B.; Cordell, Kitrina G.; Eisbruch, Avraham; Worden, Francis P.; Wolf, Gregory T.; Prince, Mark E.; Moyer, Jeffrey S.; Teknos, Theodoros N.; Chepeha, Douglas B.; Stoerker, Jay; Walline, Heather; Carey, Thomas E.; Bradford, Carol R. (2009). "HPV-positive/p16-positive/EBV-negative nasopharyngeal carcinoma in white North Americans". Head & Neck: NA–NA. doi:10.1002/hed.21216. ISSN 1043-3074.
  5. ↑ Chan, Yap-Hang; Lo, Ching-Man; Lau, Hiu-Ying; Lam, Tai-Hing (2014). "Vertically transmitted nasopharyngeal infection of the human papillomavirus: Does it play an aetiological role in nasopharyngeal cancer?". Oral Oncology. 50 (5): 326–329. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2013.12.025. ISSN 1368-8375.
  6. ↑ Dogan, Snjezana; Hedberg, Matthew L.; Ferris, Robert L.; Rath, Tanya J.; Assaad, Adel M.; Chiosea, Simion I. (2014). "Human papillomavirus and Epstein-Barr virus in nasopharyngeal carcinoma in a low-incidence population". Head & Neck. 36 (4): 511–516. doi:10.1002/hed.23318. ISSN 1043-3074.
  7. ↑ Stenmark, Matthew H.; McHugh, Jonathan B.; Schipper, Matthew; Walline, Heather M.; Komarck, Christine; Feng, Felix Y.; Worden, Francis P.; Wolf, Gregory T.; Chepeha, Douglas B.; Prince, Mark E.; Bradford, Carol R.; Mukherji, Suresh K.; Eisbruch, Avraham; Carey, Thomas E. (2014). "Nonendemic HPV-Positive Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma: Association With Poor Prognosis". International Journal of Radiation Oncology*Biology*Physics. 88 (3): 580–588. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2013.11.246. ISSN 0360-3016.
  8. ↑ Radha Raghupathy, Edwin Pun Hui & Anthony Tak Cheung Chan (2014). "Epstein-Barr virus as a paradigm in nasopharyngeal cancer: from lab to clinic". American Society of Clinical Oncology educational book. American Society of Clinical Oncology. Annual Meeting: 149–153. doi:10.14694/EdBook_AM.2014.34.149. PMID 24857071.
  9. ↑ Pathmanathan, Rajadurai; Prasad, Umapati; Sadler, Robert; Flynn, Kathryn; Raab-Traub, Nancy (1995). "Clonal Proliferations of Cells Infected with Epstein–Barr Virus in Preinvasive Lesions Related to Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma". New England Journal of Medicine. 333 (11): 693–698. doi:10.1056/NEJM199509143331103. ISSN 0028-4793.
  10. ↑ A. S. Chan, K. F. To, K. W. Lo, K. F. Mak, W. Pak, B. Chiu, G. M. Tse, M. Ding, X. Li, J. C. Lee & D. P. Huang (2000). "High frequency of chromosome 3p deletion in histologically normal nasopharyngeal epithelia from southern Chinese". Cancer research. 60 (19): 5365–5370. PMID 11034072. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

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