Glioma overview: Difference between revisions
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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
A glioma is a type of primary [[central nervous system]] (CNS) [[tumor]] that arises from [[glial cell]]s. The most common site of involvement of gliomas is the brain, but gliomas can also affect the [[spinal cord]] or any other part of the CNS, such as the [[optic nerve]].<ref>Mamelak A.N., and Jacoby, D.B. ''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&list_uids=17335414&cmd=Retrieve&indexed=google Targeted delivery of antitumoral therapy to glioma and other malignancies with synthetic chlorotoxin (TM-601)]'' Expert Opin. Drug Drliv. (2007) '''4'''(2):175-186.</ref> Gliomas were reported as early as the 1850s. Retinal gliomas were most commonly reported because they were easier to detect and sample in the absence of advanced imaging and surgical techniques. Glioma may be classified into several subtypes based on the type of cell, grade, and location.<ref name=ddd>Classification of glioma. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioma</ref> The pathogenesis of cerebral glioma involves invasion of the tumor cells into the adjacent normal brain tissue. The gross and histopathological appearance of glioma varies with the tumor grade and type.<ref name=aaa>Pathology of pilocytic astrocytoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Pilocytic_astrocytoma</ref><ref name=fff>Pathology of gliomas. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name=bbb>Pathology of anaplastic astrocytoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php?title=Neuropathology_tumours&redirect=no#Infiltrative_astrocytomas</ref><ref name=ccc>Pathology of glioblastoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Glioblastoma</ref><ref name=vvv>Pathology of ependymoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Ependymoma</ref> Glioma must be differentiated from [[primary CNS lymphoma]], [[cerebral metastases]], [[meningioma]], [[brain abscess]], [[cavernous malformation]], [[stroke]], [[acute disseminated encephalomyelitis]], [[cavernous sinus syndrome]], [[intracranial hemorrhage]], [[gerstmann syndrome]], [[tuberculosis|spinal tuberculosis]], [[hamartoma]], [[germinoma]], [[teratoma]], [[Gliosis|piloid gliosis]], and [[progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy]].<ref name=aaa>DDx of gliomas. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name=ddd>Differential diagnosis of glioblastoma multiforme. Dr Dylan Kurda and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/Glioblastoma</ref> The [[incidence]] of glioma is estimated to be 4.9 cases per 100,000 individuals in the US.<ref name="pmid16932614">{{cite journal| author=Schwartzbaum JA, Fisher JL, Aldape KD, Wrensch M| title=Epidemiology and molecular pathology of glioma. | journal=Nat Clin Pract Neurol | year= 2006 | volume= 2 | issue= 9 | pages= 494-503; quiz 1 p following 516 | pmid=16932614 | doi=10.1038/ncpneuro0289 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16932614 }} </ref> Patients of all age groups may develop glioma. Males are more commonly affected with glioma than females. It usually affects individuals of the caucasian race. African american, latin american, and asian individuals are less likely to develop glioma. Common risk factors in the development of glioma are occupational factors, environmental factors, genetic factors, and viruses.<ref name=ddd>{{Cite journal|title = Animal viruses, bacteria, and cancer: a brief commentary|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24592380|journal = Frontiers in Public Health|date = 2014|issn = 2296-2565|pmc = 3923154|pmid = 24592380|pages = 14|volume = 2|doi = 10.3389/fpubh.2014.00014|first = Jimmy T.|last = Efird|first2 = Stephen W.|last2 = Davies|first3 = Wesley T.|last3 = O'Neal|first4 = Ethan J.|last4 = Anderson}}</ref><ref name=aaa>{{cite journal|last=Reuss|first=D|author2=von Deimling, A|title=Hereditary tumor syndromes and gliomas.|journal=Recent results in cancer research. Fortschritte der Krebsforschung. Progres dans les recherches sur le cancer|year=2009|volume=171|pages=83–102|pmid=19322539|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-31206-2_5}}</ref><ref name="pmid16932614">{{cite journal| author=Schwartzbaum JA, Fisher JL, Aldape KD, Wrensch M| title=Epidemiology and molecular pathology of glioma. | journal=Nat Clin Pract Neurol | year= 2006 | volume= 2 | issue= 9 | pages= 494-503; quiz 1 p following 516 | pmid=16932614 | doi=10.1038/ncpneuro0289 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16932614 }} </ref><ref name=bbb>{{Cite journal|title = Exposure to farm crops, livestock, and farm tasks and risk of glioma: the Upper Midwest Health Study|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19403843/|journal = American Journal of Epidemiology|date = Jun 15, 2009|issn = 1476-6256|pmid = 19403843|pages = 1479-1491|volume = 169|issue = 12|doi = 10.1093/aje/kwp075|first = Avima M.|last = Ruder|first2 = Tania|last2 = Carreón|first3 = Mary Ann|last3 = Butler|first4 = Geoffrey M.|last4 = Calvert|first5 = Karen E.|last5 = Davis-King|first6 = Martha A.|last6 = Waters|first7 = Paul A.|last7 = Schulte|first8 = Jack S.|last8 = Mandel|first9 = Roscoe F.|last9 = Morton}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = The epidemiology of glioma in adults: a "state of the science" review|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24842956|journal = Neuro-Oncology|date = Jul 2014|issn = 1523-5866|pmc = 4057143|pmid = 24842956|pages = 896-913|volume = 16|issue = 7|doi = 10.1093/neuonc/nou087|first = Quinn T.|last = Ostrom|first2 = Luc|last2 = Bauchet|first3 = Faith G.|last3 = Davis|first4 = Isabelle|last4 = Deltour|first5 = James L.|last5 = Fisher|first6 = Chelsea Eastman|last6 = Langer|first7 = Melike|last7 = Pekmezci|first8 = Judith A.|last8 = Schwartzbaum|first9 = Michelle C.|last9 = Turner}}</ref> Common complications of glioma include [[brain herniation]], [[coma]], [[metastasis]], and recurrence. The prognosis of glioma varies with the grade of tumor. The 1-year and 2-year survival rate of patients with [[malignant|malignant glioma]] is approximately 50% and 25%, respectively.<ref name=eee>Prognostic factors of glioma. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/patient/adult-brain-treatment-pdq</ref> Common symptoms of glioma include [[Headache|morning headaches]], [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]], [[seizures]], [[drowsiness]], [[Aphasia|changes in speech]], [[Dysphagia|difficulty in swallowing]], vision changes, abnormal eye movements, [[Personality changes|changes in personality]], [[memory loss]], [[Ataxia|loss of balance]], [[Gait|difficulty in walking]], [[Weakness|weakness in extremities]], [[Numbness|numbness in extremities]], [[Pain|pain in extremities]], and [[loss of appetite]].<ref name=ddd>Signs and symptoms of glioma. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/patient/adult-brain-treatment-pdq</ref> The CT scan and MRI findings of glioma vary with the tumor grade and type.<ref name=ddd>Radiological findings of glioblastoma. Dr Dylan Kurda and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/glioblastoma</ref><ref name=fff>Radiological findings of ependymoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia.org 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/ependymoma</ref><ref name=aaa>Radiological findings of pilocytic astrocytoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia.org 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/pilocytic-astrocytoma</ref><ref name=bbb>Radiological findings of low grade infiltrative astrocytoma. Dr Henry Knipe and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/low-grade-infiltrative-astrocytoma</ref><ref name=eee>Radiological findings of oligodendroglioma. Dr Henry Knipe and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name=ccc>Radiological findings of anaplastic astrocytoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/anaplastic-astrocytoma</ref> The predominant therapy for glioma is [[surgical resection]]. Adjunctive [[chemotherapy]] and [[radiation]] may be required.<ref name=ddd>Treatment of glioma. SurgWiki.com. http://www.surgwiki.com/wiki/Intracranial_tumours,_infection_and_aneurysms#Astrocytoma</ref> | A [[glioma]] is a type of primary [[central nervous system]] ([[CNS]]) [[tumor]] that arises from [[glial cell]]s. The most common site of involvement of [[Glioma|gliomas]] is the [[brain]], but [[gliomas]] can also affect the [[spinal cord]] or any other part of the [[CNS]], such as the [[optic nerve]].<ref>Mamelak A.N., and Jacoby, D.B. ''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&list_uids=17335414&cmd=Retrieve&indexed=google Targeted delivery of antitumoral therapy to glioma and other malignancies with synthetic chlorotoxin (TM-601)]'' Expert Opin. Drug Drliv. (2007) '''4'''(2):175-186.</ref> [[Glioma|Gliomas]] were reported as early as the 1850s. [[Retinal]] [[Glioma|gliomas]] were most commonly reported because they were easier to detect and sample in the absence of advanced [[imaging]] and surgical techniques. [[Glioma|Gliomas]] may be classified into several subtypes based on the type of [[cell]], grade, and location.<ref name="ddd">Classification of glioma. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioma</ref> The [[pathogenesis]] of [[cerebral]] [[glioma]] involves [[invasion]] of the [[tumor]] [[Tumor cell|cells]] into the adjacent normal [[brain]] [[tissue]]. The [[gross]] and [[histopathological]] [[appearance]] of [[glioma]] varies with the [[tumor]] grade and type.<ref name="aaa">Pathology of pilocytic astrocytoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Pilocytic_astrocytoma</ref><ref name="fff">Pathology of gliomas. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name="bbb">Pathology of anaplastic astrocytoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php?title=Neuropathology_tumours&redirect=no#Infiltrative_astrocytomas</ref><ref name="ccc">Pathology of glioblastoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Glioblastoma</ref><ref name="vvv">Pathology of ependymoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Ependymoma</ref> [[Glioma]] must be differentiated from [[primary CNS lymphoma]], [[cerebral metastases]], [[meningioma]], [[brain abscess]], [[cavernous malformation]], [[stroke]], [[acute disseminated encephalomyelitis]], [[cavernous sinus syndrome]], [[intracranial hemorrhage]], [[gerstmann syndrome]], [[tuberculosis|spinal tuberculosis]], [[hamartoma]], [[germinoma]], [[teratoma]], [[Gliosis|piloid gliosis]], and [[progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy]].<ref name="aaa">DDx of gliomas. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name="ddd">Differential diagnosis of glioblastoma multiforme. Dr Dylan Kurda and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/Glioblastoma</ref> The [[incidence]] of glioma is estimated to be 4.9 cases per 100,000 individuals in the US.<ref name="pmid16932614">{{cite journal| author=Schwartzbaum JA, Fisher JL, Aldape KD, Wrensch M| title=Epidemiology and molecular pathology of glioma. | journal=Nat Clin Pract Neurol | year= 2006 | volume= 2 | issue= 9 | pages= 494-503; quiz 1 p following 516 | pmid=16932614 | doi=10.1038/ncpneuro0289 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16932614 }} </ref> Patients of all age groups may develop glioma. Males are more commonly affected with glioma than females. It usually affects individuals of the caucasian race. African american, latin american, and asian individuals are less likely to develop glioma. Common risk factors in the development of glioma are occupational factors, environmental factors, genetic factors, and viruses.<ref name="ddd">{{Cite journal|title = Animal viruses, bacteria, and cancer: a brief commentary|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24592380|journal = Frontiers in Public Health|date = 2014|issn = 2296-2565|pmc = 3923154|pmid = 24592380|pages = 14|volume = 2|doi = 10.3389/fpubh.2014.00014|first = Jimmy T.|last = Efird|first2 = Stephen W.|last2 = Davies|first3 = Wesley T.|last3 = O'Neal|first4 = Ethan J.|last4 = Anderson}}</ref><ref name="aaa">{{cite journal|last=Reuss|first=D|author2=von Deimling, A|title=Hereditary tumor syndromes and gliomas.|journal=Recent results in cancer research. Fortschritte der Krebsforschung. Progres dans les recherches sur le cancer|year=2009|volume=171|pages=83–102|pmid=19322539|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-31206-2_5}}</ref><ref name="pmid16932614">{{cite journal| author=Schwartzbaum JA, Fisher JL, Aldape KD, Wrensch M| title=Epidemiology and molecular pathology of glioma. | journal=Nat Clin Pract Neurol | year= 2006 | volume= 2 | issue= 9 | pages= 494-503; quiz 1 p following 516 | pmid=16932614 | doi=10.1038/ncpneuro0289 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16932614 }} </ref><ref name="bbb">{{Cite journal|title = Exposure to farm crops, livestock, and farm tasks and risk of glioma: the Upper Midwest Health Study|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19403843/|journal = American Journal of Epidemiology|date = Jun 15, 2009|issn = 1476-6256|pmid = 19403843|pages = 1479-1491|volume = 169|issue = 12|doi = 10.1093/aje/kwp075|first = Avima M.|last = Ruder|first2 = Tania|last2 = Carreón|first3 = Mary Ann|last3 = Butler|first4 = Geoffrey M.|last4 = Calvert|first5 = Karen E.|last5 = Davis-King|first6 = Martha A.|last6 = Waters|first7 = Paul A.|last7 = Schulte|first8 = Jack S.|last8 = Mandel|first9 = Roscoe F.|last9 = Morton}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = The epidemiology of glioma in adults: a "state of the science" review|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24842956|journal = Neuro-Oncology|date = Jul 2014|issn = 1523-5866|pmc = 4057143|pmid = 24842956|pages = 896-913|volume = 16|issue = 7|doi = 10.1093/neuonc/nou087|first = Quinn T.|last = Ostrom|first2 = Luc|last2 = Bauchet|first3 = Faith G.|last3 = Davis|first4 = Isabelle|last4 = Deltour|first5 = James L.|last5 = Fisher|first6 = Chelsea Eastman|last6 = Langer|first7 = Melike|last7 = Pekmezci|first8 = Judith A.|last8 = Schwartzbaum|first9 = Michelle C.|last9 = Turner}}</ref> Common complications of glioma include [[brain herniation]], [[coma]], [[metastasis]], and recurrence. The prognosis of glioma varies with the grade of tumor. The 1-year and 2-year survival rate of patients with [[malignant|malignant glioma]] is approximately 50% and 25%, respectively.<ref name="eee">Prognostic factors of glioma. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/patient/adult-brain-treatment-pdq</ref> Common symptoms of glioma include [[Headache|morning headaches]], [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]], [[seizures]], [[drowsiness]], [[Aphasia|changes in speech]], [[Dysphagia|difficulty in swallowing]], vision changes, abnormal eye movements, [[Personality changes|changes in personality]], [[memory loss]], [[Ataxia|loss of balance]], [[Gait|difficulty in walking]], [[Weakness|weakness in extremities]], [[Numbness|numbness in extremities]], [[Pain|pain in extremities]], and [[loss of appetite]].<ref name="ddd">Signs and symptoms of glioma. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/patient/adult-brain-treatment-pdq</ref> The CT scan and MRI findings of glioma vary with the tumor grade and type.<ref name="ddd">Radiological findings of glioblastoma. Dr Dylan Kurda and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/glioblastoma</ref><ref name="fff">Radiological findings of ependymoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia.org 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/ependymoma</ref><ref name="aaa">Radiological findings of pilocytic astrocytoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia.org 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/pilocytic-astrocytoma</ref><ref name="bbb">Radiological findings of low grade infiltrative astrocytoma. Dr Henry Knipe and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/low-grade-infiltrative-astrocytoma</ref><ref name="eee">Radiological findings of oligodendroglioma. Dr Henry Knipe and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name="ccc">Radiological findings of anaplastic astrocytoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/anaplastic-astrocytoma</ref> The predominant therapy for glioma is [[surgical resection]]. Adjunctive [[chemotherapy]] and [[radiation]] may be required.<ref name="ddd">Treatment of glioma. SurgWiki.com. http://www.surgwiki.com/wiki/Intracranial_tumours,_infection_and_aneurysms#Astrocytoma</ref> | ||
==Historical Perspective== | ==Historical Perspective== | ||
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==Classification== | ==Classification== | ||
Glioma may be classified into several subtypes based on the type of cell (ependymoma, astrocytoma, oligodendroglioma, and mixed gliomas), grade (low-grade and high-grade gliomas), and location (infratentorial and supratentorial).<ref name=ddd>Classification of glioma. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioma</ref> | Glioma may be classified into several subtypes based on the type of cell (ependymoma, astrocytoma, oligodendroglioma, and mixed gliomas), grade (low-grade and high-grade gliomas), and location (infratentorial and supratentorial).<ref name="ddd">Classification of glioma. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioma</ref> | ||
==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
The pathogenesis of cerebral glioma involves invasion of the tumor cells into the adjacent normal brain tissue. Although in certain areas the margin of the tumor may seem to be macroscopically well defined from the brain, there are always microscopic nests of tumor cells extending well out into the brain.<ref name=aaa>Pathology of glioma. http://www.surgwiki.com/wiki/Intracranial_tumours,_infection_and_aneurysms</ref> Genes involved in the pathogenesis of glioma include ''ERCC1'', ''[[ERCC2]]'', ''[[XRCC1]]'', ''MGMT'', ''IDH1'', ''[[IDH2]]'', ''[[p53]]'', ''[[EGFR]]'', ''[[TSC1]]'', ''[[TSC2]]'', ''[[RB1]]'', ''[[APC]]'', ''hMLH1'', ''hMSH2'', ''[[PMS2]]'', ''[[PTEN]]'', ''[[NF1]]'', and ''NF2''.<ref name=ddd>Pathology of glioma. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioma</ref><ref name="pmid16932614">{{cite journal| author=Schwartzbaum JA, Fisher JL, Aldape KD, Wrensch M| title=Epidemiology and molecular pathology of glioma. | journal=Nat Clin Pract Neurol | year= 2006 | volume= 2 | issue= 9 | pages= 494-503; quiz 1 p following 516 | pmid=16932614 | doi=10.1038/ncpneuro0289 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16932614 }} </ref> The gross and histopathological appearance of glioma varies with the tumor grade and type.<ref name=ppp>Pathology of pilocytic astrocytoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Pilocytic_astrocytoma</ref><ref name=fff>Pathology of gliomas. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name=bbb>Pathology of anaplastic astrocytoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php?title=Neuropathology_tumours&redirect=no#Infiltrative_astrocytomas</ref><ref name=ccc>Pathology of glioblastoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Glioblastoma</ref><ref name=vvv>Pathology of ependymoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Ependymoma</ref> | The pathogenesis of cerebral glioma involves invasion of the tumor cells into the adjacent normal brain tissue. Although in certain areas the margin of the tumor may seem to be macroscopically well defined from the brain, there are always microscopic nests of tumor cells extending well out into the brain.<ref name="aaa">Pathology of glioma. http://www.surgwiki.com/wiki/Intracranial_tumours,_infection_and_aneurysms</ref> Genes involved in the pathogenesis of glioma include ''ERCC1'', ''[[ERCC2]]'', ''[[XRCC1]]'', ''MGMT'', ''IDH1'', ''[[IDH2]]'', ''[[p53]]'', ''[[EGFR]]'', ''[[TSC1]]'', ''[[TSC2]]'', ''[[RB1]]'', ''[[APC]]'', ''hMLH1'', ''hMSH2'', ''[[PMS2]]'', ''[[PTEN]]'', ''[[NF1]]'', and ''NF2''.<ref name="ddd">Pathology of glioma. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioma</ref><ref name="pmid16932614">{{cite journal| author=Schwartzbaum JA, Fisher JL, Aldape KD, Wrensch M| title=Epidemiology and molecular pathology of glioma. | journal=Nat Clin Pract Neurol | year= 2006 | volume= 2 | issue= 9 | pages= 494-503; quiz 1 p following 516 | pmid=16932614 | doi=10.1038/ncpneuro0289 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16932614 }} </ref> The gross and histopathological appearance of glioma varies with the tumor grade and type.<ref name="ppp">Pathology of pilocytic astrocytoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Pilocytic_astrocytoma</ref><ref name="fff">Pathology of gliomas. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name="bbb">Pathology of anaplastic astrocytoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php?title=Neuropathology_tumours&redirect=no#Infiltrative_astrocytomas</ref><ref name="ccc">Pathology of glioblastoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Glioblastoma</ref><ref name="vvv">Pathology of ependymoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Ependymoma</ref> | ||
==Causes== | ==Causes== | ||
| Line 19: | Line 19: | ||
==Differentiating brain tumors from other diseases== | ==Differentiating brain tumors from other diseases== | ||
Glioma must be differentiated from [[primary CNS lymphoma]], [[cerebral metastases]], [[meningioma]], [[brain abscess]], [[cavernous malformation]], [[stroke]], [[acute disseminated encephalomyelitis]], [[cavernous sinus syndrome]], [[intracranial hemorrhage]], [[gerstmann syndrome]], [[Tuberculosis|spinal tuberculosis]], [[hamartoma]], [[germinoma]], [[teratoma]], [[Gliosis|piloid gliosis]], and [[progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy]].<ref name=ddd>Differential diagnosis of glioblastoma multiforme. Dr Dylan Kurda and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/Glioblastoma</ref><ref name=aaa>DDx of gliomas. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma</ref> | Glioma must be differentiated from [[primary CNS lymphoma]], [[cerebral metastases]], [[meningioma]], [[brain abscess]], [[cavernous malformation]], [[stroke]], [[acute disseminated encephalomyelitis]], [[cavernous sinus syndrome]], [[intracranial hemorrhage]], [[gerstmann syndrome]], [[Tuberculosis|spinal tuberculosis]], [[hamartoma]], [[germinoma]], [[teratoma]], [[Gliosis|piloid gliosis]], and [[progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy]].<ref name="ddd">Differential diagnosis of glioblastoma multiforme. Dr Dylan Kurda and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/Glioblastoma</ref><ref name="aaa">DDx of gliomas. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma</ref> | ||
==Epidemiology and Demographics== | ==Epidemiology and Demographics== | ||
| Line 25: | Line 25: | ||
==Risk factors== | ==Risk factors== | ||
Common risk factors in the development of glioma are occupational factors, environmental factors, genetic factors, and viruses.<ref name=ddd>{{Cite journal|title = Animal viruses, bacteria, and cancer: a brief commentary|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24592380|journal = Frontiers in Public Health|date = 2014|issn = 2296-2565|pmc = 3923154|pmid = 24592380|pages = 14|volume = 2|doi = 10.3389/fpubh.2014.00014|first = Jimmy T.|last = Efird|first2 = Stephen W.|last2 = Davies|first3 = Wesley T.|last3 = O'Neal|first4 = Ethan J.|last4 = Anderson}}</ref><ref name=aaa>{{cite journal|last=Reuss|first=D|author2=von Deimling, A|title=Hereditary tumor syndromes and gliomas.|journal=Recent results in cancer research. Fortschritte der Krebsforschung. Progres dans les recherches sur le cancer|year=2009|volume=171|pages=83–102|pmid=19322539|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-31206-2_5}}</ref><ref name="pmid16932614">{{cite journal| author=Schwartzbaum JA, Fisher JL, Aldape KD, Wrensch M| title=Epidemiology and molecular pathology of glioma. | journal=Nat Clin Pract Neurol | year= 2006 | volume= 2 | issue= 9 | pages= 494-503; quiz 1 p following 516 | pmid=16932614 | doi=10.1038/ncpneuro0289 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16932614 }} </ref><ref name=bbb>{{Cite journal|title = Exposure to farm crops, livestock, and farm tasks and risk of glioma: the Upper Midwest Health Study|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19403843/|journal = American Journal of Epidemiology|date = Jun 15, 2009|issn = 1476-6256|pmid = 19403843|pages = 1479-1491|volume = 169|issue = 12|doi = 10.1093/aje/kwp075|first = Avima M.|last = Ruder|first2 = Tania|last2 = Carreón|first3 = Mary Ann|last3 = Butler|first4 = Geoffrey M.|last4 = Calvert|first5 = Karen E.|last5 = Davis-King|first6 = Martha A.|last6 = Waters|first7 = Paul A.|last7 = Schulte|first8 = Jack S.|last8 = Mandel|first9 = Roscoe F.|last9 = Morton}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = The epidemiology of glioma in adults: a "state of the science" review|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24842956|journal = Neuro-Oncology|date = Jul 2014|issn = 1523-5866|pmc = 4057143|pmid = 24842956|pages = 896-913|volume = 16|issue = 7|doi = 10.1093/neuonc/nou087|first = Quinn T.|last = Ostrom|first2 = Luc|last2 = Bauchet|first3 = Faith G.|last3 = Davis|first4 = Isabelle|last4 = Deltour|first5 = James L.|last5 = Fisher|first6 = Chelsea Eastman|last6 = Langer|first7 = Melike|last7 = Pekmezci|first8 = Judith A.|last8 = Schwartzbaum|first9 = Michelle C.|last9 = Turner}}</ref> | Common risk factors in the development of glioma are occupational factors, environmental factors, genetic factors, and viruses.<ref name="ddd">{{Cite journal|title = Animal viruses, bacteria, and cancer: a brief commentary|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24592380|journal = Frontiers in Public Health|date = 2014|issn = 2296-2565|pmc = 3923154|pmid = 24592380|pages = 14|volume = 2|doi = 10.3389/fpubh.2014.00014|first = Jimmy T.|last = Efird|first2 = Stephen W.|last2 = Davies|first3 = Wesley T.|last3 = O'Neal|first4 = Ethan J.|last4 = Anderson}}</ref><ref name="aaa">{{cite journal|last=Reuss|first=D|author2=von Deimling, A|title=Hereditary tumor syndromes and gliomas.|journal=Recent results in cancer research. Fortschritte der Krebsforschung. Progres dans les recherches sur le cancer|year=2009|volume=171|pages=83–102|pmid=19322539|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-31206-2_5}}</ref><ref name="pmid16932614">{{cite journal| author=Schwartzbaum JA, Fisher JL, Aldape KD, Wrensch M| title=Epidemiology and molecular pathology of glioma. | journal=Nat Clin Pract Neurol | year= 2006 | volume= 2 | issue= 9 | pages= 494-503; quiz 1 p following 516 | pmid=16932614 | doi=10.1038/ncpneuro0289 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16932614 }} </ref><ref name="bbb">{{Cite journal|title = Exposure to farm crops, livestock, and farm tasks and risk of glioma: the Upper Midwest Health Study|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19403843/|journal = American Journal of Epidemiology|date = Jun 15, 2009|issn = 1476-6256|pmid = 19403843|pages = 1479-1491|volume = 169|issue = 12|doi = 10.1093/aje/kwp075|first = Avima M.|last = Ruder|first2 = Tania|last2 = Carreón|first3 = Mary Ann|last3 = Butler|first4 = Geoffrey M.|last4 = Calvert|first5 = Karen E.|last5 = Davis-King|first6 = Martha A.|last6 = Waters|first7 = Paul A.|last7 = Schulte|first8 = Jack S.|last8 = Mandel|first9 = Roscoe F.|last9 = Morton}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = The epidemiology of glioma in adults: a "state of the science" review|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24842956|journal = Neuro-Oncology|date = Jul 2014|issn = 1523-5866|pmc = 4057143|pmid = 24842956|pages = 896-913|volume = 16|issue = 7|doi = 10.1093/neuonc/nou087|first = Quinn T.|last = Ostrom|first2 = Luc|last2 = Bauchet|first3 = Faith G.|last3 = Davis|first4 = Isabelle|last4 = Deltour|first5 = James L.|last5 = Fisher|first6 = Chelsea Eastman|last6 = Langer|first7 = Melike|last7 = Pekmezci|first8 = Judith A.|last8 = Schwartzbaum|first9 = Michelle C.|last9 = Turner}}</ref> | ||
==Screening== | ==Screening== | ||
| Line 31: | Line 31: | ||
==Natural History, Complications and Prognosis== | ==Natural History, Complications and Prognosis== | ||
Common complications of glioma include [[brain herniation]], [[coma]], [[metastasis]], and recurrence. The prognosis of glioma varies with the grade of tumor. The 1-year and 2-year survival rate of patients with [[malignant|malignant glioma]] is approximately 50% and 25%, respectively.<ref name=eee>Prognostic factors of glioma. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/patient/adult-brain-treatment-pdq</ref> | Common complications of glioma include [[brain herniation]], [[coma]], [[metastasis]], and recurrence. The prognosis of glioma varies with the grade of tumor. The 1-year and 2-year survival rate of patients with [[malignant|malignant glioma]] is approximately 50% and 25%, respectively.<ref name="eee">Prognostic factors of glioma. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/patient/adult-brain-treatment-pdq</ref> | ||
==Staging== | ==Staging== | ||
There is no established system for the staging of glioma.<ref name=eee>Signs and symptoms of glioma. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/patient/adult-brain-treatment-pdq</ref> | There is no established system for the staging of glioma.<ref name="eee">Signs and symptoms of glioma. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/patient/adult-brain-treatment-pdq</ref> | ||
==History and Symptoms== | ==History and Symptoms== | ||
Common symptoms of glioma include [[Headache|morning headaches]], [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]], [[seizures]], [[drowsiness]], [[Aphasia|changes in speech]], [[Dysphagia|difficulty in swallowing]], vision changes, abnormal eye movements, [[Personality changes|changes in personality]], [[memory loss]], [[Ataxia|loss of balance]], [[Gait|difficulty in walking]], [[Weakness|weakness in extremities]], [[Numbness|numbness in extremities]], [[Pain|pain in extremities]], and [[loss of appetite]].<ref name=ddd>Signs and symptoms of glioma. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/patient/adult-brain-treatment-pdq</ref> | Common symptoms of glioma include [[Headache|morning headaches]], [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]], [[seizures]], [[drowsiness]], [[Aphasia|changes in speech]], [[Dysphagia|difficulty in swallowing]], vision changes, abnormal eye movements, [[Personality changes|changes in personality]], [[memory loss]], [[Ataxia|loss of balance]], [[Gait|difficulty in walking]], [[Weakness|weakness in extremities]], [[Numbness|numbness in extremities]], [[Pain|pain in extremities]], and [[loss of appetite]].<ref name="ddd">Signs and symptoms of glioma. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/patient/adult-brain-treatment-pdq</ref> | ||
==Physical examination== | ==Physical examination== | ||
Common physical examination findings of glioma include [[aphasia]], [[vision loss]], [[strabismus]], [[memory loss]], [[sensory loss]], [[paresis]], [[Gait|abnormal gait]], [[ataxia]], [[papilledema]], and focal neurological deficits.<ref name=ddd>Signs and symptoms of glioma. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/patient/adult-brain-treatment-pdq</ref> | Common physical examination findings of glioma include [[aphasia]], [[vision loss]], [[strabismus]], [[memory loss]], [[sensory loss]], [[paresis]], [[Gait|abnormal gait]], [[ataxia]], [[papilledema]], and focal neurological deficits.<ref name="ddd">Signs and symptoms of glioma. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/patient/adult-brain-treatment-pdq</ref> | ||
==Laboratory Findings== | ==Laboratory Findings== | ||
| Line 49: | Line 49: | ||
==CT== | ==CT== | ||
Head CT scan may be diagnostic of glioma. The CT scan findings of glioma vary with the tumor grade and type.<ref name=ddd>Radiological findings of glioblastoma. Dr Dylan Kurda and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/glioblastoma</ref><ref name=fff>Radiological findings of ependymoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia.org 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/ependymoma</ref><ref name=aaa>Radiological findings of pilocytic astrocytoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia.org 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/pilocytic-astrocytoma</ref><ref name=bbb>Radiological findings of low grade infiltrative astrocytoma. Dr Henry Knipe and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/low-grade-infiltrative-astrocytoma</ref><ref name=eee>Radiological findings of oligodendroglioma. Dr Henry Knipe and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name=ccc>Radiological findings of anaplastic astrocytoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/anaplastic-astrocytoma</ref> | Head CT scan may be diagnostic of glioma. The CT scan findings of glioma vary with the tumor grade and type.<ref name="ddd">Radiological findings of glioblastoma. Dr Dylan Kurda and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/glioblastoma</ref><ref name="fff">Radiological findings of ependymoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia.org 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/ependymoma</ref><ref name="aaa">Radiological findings of pilocytic astrocytoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia.org 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/pilocytic-astrocytoma</ref><ref name="bbb">Radiological findings of low grade infiltrative astrocytoma. Dr Henry Knipe and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/low-grade-infiltrative-astrocytoma</ref><ref name="eee">Radiological findings of oligodendroglioma. Dr Henry Knipe and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name="ccc">Radiological findings of anaplastic astrocytoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/anaplastic-astrocytoma</ref> | ||
==MRI== | ==MRI== | ||
[[Brain]] MRI may be diagnostic of glioma. The MRI findings of glioma vary with the tumor grade and type.<ref name=ddd>Radiological findings of glioblastoma. Dr Dylan Kurda and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/glioblastoma</ref><ref name=fff>Radiological findings of ependymoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia.org 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/ependymoma</ref><ref name=aaa>Radiological findings of pilocytic astrocytoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia.org 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/pilocytic-astrocytoma</ref><ref name=bbb>Radiological findings of low grade infiltrative astrocytoma. Dr Henry Knipe and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/low-grade-infiltrative-astrocytoma</ref><ref name=eee>Radiological findings of oligodendroglioma. Dr Henry Knipe and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name=ccc>Radiological findings of anaplastic astrocytoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/anaplastic-astrocytoma</ref> | [[Brain]] MRI may be diagnostic of glioma. The MRI findings of glioma vary with the tumor grade and type.<ref name="ddd">Radiological findings of glioblastoma. Dr Dylan Kurda and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/glioblastoma</ref><ref name="fff">Radiological findings of ependymoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia.org 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/ependymoma</ref><ref name="aaa">Radiological findings of pilocytic astrocytoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia.org 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/pilocytic-astrocytoma</ref><ref name="bbb">Radiological findings of low grade infiltrative astrocytoma. Dr Henry Knipe and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/low-grade-infiltrative-astrocytoma</ref><ref name="eee">Radiological findings of oligodendroglioma. Dr Henry Knipe and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name="ccc">Radiological findings of anaplastic astrocytoma. Dr Bruno Di Muzio and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/anaplastic-astrocytoma</ref> | ||
==Ultrasound== | ==Ultrasound== | ||
| Line 58: | Line 58: | ||
==Other Imaging Findings== | ==Other Imaging Findings== | ||
Other imaging studies for high-grade gliomas include [[PET scan]], which demonstrates accumulation of [18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose (increased [[glucose metabolism]]).<ref name=ddd>Radiographic features of glioblastoma multiforme. Dr Dylan Kurda and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/glioblastoma</ref> | Other imaging studies for high-grade gliomas include [[PET scan]], which demonstrates accumulation of [18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose (increased [[glucose metabolism]]).<ref name="ddd">Radiographic features of glioblastoma multiforme. Dr Dylan Kurda and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/glioblastoma</ref> | ||
==Other Diagnostic Studies== | ==Other Diagnostic Studies== | ||
Other diagnostic studies for glioma include [[biopsy]], which demonstrates astrocytes with or without [[atypia]] and [[mitoses]], depending on the type of glioma.<ref name=ddd>Pathology of glioblastoma multiforme. Dr Dylan Kurda and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/glioblastoma</ref> | Other diagnostic studies for glioma include [[biopsy]], which demonstrates astrocytes with or without [[atypia]] and [[mitoses]], depending on the type of glioma.<ref name="ddd">Pathology of glioblastoma multiforme. Dr Dylan Kurda and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. Radiopaedia 2015. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/glioblastoma</ref> | ||
==Medical Therapy== | ==Medical Therapy== | ||
Treatment for glioma depends on the location and grade. The predominant therapy for glioma is [[surgical resection]]. Adjunctive [[chemotherapy]] and [[radiation]] may be required.<ref name=ddd>Treatment of glioma. SurgWiki.com. http://www.surgwiki.com/wiki/Intracranial_tumours,_infection_and_aneurysms#Astrocytoma</ref> | Treatment for glioma depends on the location and grade. The predominant therapy for glioma is [[surgical resection]]. Adjunctive [[chemotherapy]] and [[radiation]] may be required.<ref name="ddd">Treatment of glioma. SurgWiki.com. http://www.surgwiki.com/wiki/Intracranial_tumours,_infection_and_aneurysms#Astrocytoma</ref> | ||
==Surgery== | ==Surgery== | ||
Surgery is the mainstay of treatment for glioma.<ref name=ddd>Manangement of glioma. http://www.surgwiki.com/wiki/Intracranial_tumours,_infection_and_aneurysms#MANAGEMENT</ref> | Surgery is the mainstay of treatment for glioma.<ref name="ddd">Manangement of glioma. http://www.surgwiki.com/wiki/Intracranial_tumours,_infection_and_aneurysms#MANAGEMENT</ref> | ||
Revision as of 12:53, 9 September 2019
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Glioma Microchapters |
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Diagnosis |
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Treatment |
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Case Studies |
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Glioma overview On the Web |
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American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Glioma overview |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor-In-Chief: Cafer Zorkun, M.D., Ph.D. [2], Sujit Routray, M.D. [3]
Overview
A glioma is a type of primary central nervous system (CNS) tumor that arises from glial cells. The most common site of involvement of gliomas is the brain, but gliomas can also affect the spinal cord or any other part of the CNS, such as the optic nerve.[1] Gliomas were reported as early as the 1850s. Retinal gliomas were most commonly reported because they were easier to detect and sample in the absence of advanced imaging and surgical techniques. Gliomas may be classified into several subtypes based on the type of cell, grade, and location.[2] The pathogenesis of cerebral glioma involves invasion of the tumor cells into the adjacent normal brain tissue. The gross and histopathological appearance of glioma varies with the tumor grade and type.[3][4][5][6][7] Glioma must be differentiated from primary CNS lymphoma, cerebral metastases, meningioma, brain abscess, cavernous malformation, stroke, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, cavernous sinus syndrome, intracranial hemorrhage, gerstmann syndrome, spinal tuberculosis, hamartoma, germinoma, teratoma, piloid gliosis, and progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy.[3][2] The incidence of glioma is estimated to be 4.9 cases per 100,000 individuals in the US.[8] Patients of all age groups may develop glioma. Males are more commonly affected with glioma than females. It usually affects individuals of the caucasian race. African american, latin american, and asian individuals are less likely to develop glioma. Common risk factors in the development of glioma are occupational factors, environmental factors, genetic factors, and viruses.[2][3][8][5][9] Common complications of glioma include brain herniation, coma, metastasis, and recurrence. The prognosis of glioma varies with the grade of tumor. The 1-year and 2-year survival rate of patients with malignant glioma is approximately 50% and 25%, respectively.[10] Common symptoms of glioma include morning headaches, nausea and vomiting, seizures, drowsiness, changes in speech, difficulty in swallowing, vision changes, abnormal eye movements, changes in personality, memory loss, loss of balance, difficulty in walking, weakness in extremities, numbness in extremities, pain in extremities, and loss of appetite.[2] The CT scan and MRI findings of glioma vary with the tumor grade and type.[2][4][3][5][10][6] The predominant therapy for glioma is surgical resection. Adjunctive chemotherapy and radiation may be required.[2]
Historical Perspective
Gliomas were reported as early as the 1850s. Retinal gliomas were most commonly reported because they were easier to detect and sample in the absence of advanced imaging and surgical techniques.
Classification
Glioma may be classified into several subtypes based on the type of cell (ependymoma, astrocytoma, oligodendroglioma, and mixed gliomas), grade (low-grade and high-grade gliomas), and location (infratentorial and supratentorial).[2]
Pathophysiology
The pathogenesis of cerebral glioma involves invasion of the tumor cells into the adjacent normal brain tissue. Although in certain areas the margin of the tumor may seem to be macroscopically well defined from the brain, there are always microscopic nests of tumor cells extending well out into the brain.[3] Genes involved in the pathogenesis of glioma include ERCC1, ERCC2, XRCC1, MGMT, IDH1, IDH2, p53, EGFR, TSC1, TSC2, RB1, APC, hMLH1, hMSH2, PMS2, PTEN, NF1, and NF2.[2][8] The gross and histopathological appearance of glioma varies with the tumor grade and type.[11][4][5][6][7]
Causes
There are no established causes for glioma.
Differentiating brain tumors from other diseases
Glioma must be differentiated from primary CNS lymphoma, cerebral metastases, meningioma, brain abscess, cavernous malformation, stroke, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, cavernous sinus syndrome, intracranial hemorrhage, gerstmann syndrome, spinal tuberculosis, hamartoma, germinoma, teratoma, piloid gliosis, and progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy.[2][3]
Epidemiology and Demographics
Glioma is the most common primary intracranial tumor. The incidence of glioma is estimated to be 4.9 cases per 100,000 individuals in the US.[8] Patients of all age groups may develop glioma. Males are more commonly affected with glioma than females. It usually affects individuals of the caucasian race. African american, latin american, and asian individuals are less likely to develop glioma.
Risk factors
Common risk factors in the development of glioma are occupational factors, environmental factors, genetic factors, and viruses.[2][3][8][5][9]
Screening
There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for glioma.[12]
Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Common complications of glioma include brain herniation, coma, metastasis, and recurrence. The prognosis of glioma varies with the grade of tumor. The 1-year and 2-year survival rate of patients with malignant glioma is approximately 50% and 25%, respectively.[10]
Staging
There is no established system for the staging of glioma.[10]
History and Symptoms
Common symptoms of glioma include morning headaches, nausea and vomiting, seizures, drowsiness, changes in speech, difficulty in swallowing, vision changes, abnormal eye movements, changes in personality, memory loss, loss of balance, difficulty in walking, weakness in extremities, numbness in extremities, pain in extremities, and loss of appetite.[2]
Physical examination
Common physical examination findings of glioma include aphasia, vision loss, strabismus, memory loss, sensory loss, paresis, abnormal gait, ataxia, papilledema, and focal neurological deficits.[2]
Laboratory Findings
There are no diagnostic lab findings associated with glioma.
X Ray
There are no x-ray findings associated with glioma.
CT
Head CT scan may be diagnostic of glioma. The CT scan findings of glioma vary with the tumor grade and type.[2][4][3][5][10][6]
MRI
Brain MRI may be diagnostic of glioma. The MRI findings of glioma vary with the tumor grade and type.[2][4][3][5][10][6]
Ultrasound
There are no ultrasound findings associated with glioma.
Other Imaging Findings
Other imaging studies for high-grade gliomas include PET scan, which demonstrates accumulation of [18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose (increased glucose metabolism).[2]
Other Diagnostic Studies
Other diagnostic studies for glioma include biopsy, which demonstrates astrocytes with or without atypia and mitoses, depending on the type of glioma.[2]
Medical Therapy
Treatment for glioma depends on the location and grade. The predominant therapy for glioma is surgical resection. Adjunctive chemotherapy and radiation may be required.[2]
Surgery
Surgery is the mainstay of treatment for glioma.[2]
References
- ↑ Mamelak A.N., and Jacoby, D.B. Targeted delivery of antitumoral therapy to glioma and other malignancies with synthetic chlorotoxin (TM-601) Expert Opin. Drug Drliv. (2007) 4(2):175-186.
- ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 Classification of glioma. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glioma
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Pathology of pilocytic astrocytoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Pilocytic_astrocytoma
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Pathology of gliomas. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Pathology of anaplastic astrocytoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php?title=Neuropathology_tumours&redirect=no#Infiltrative_astrocytomas
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Pathology of glioblastoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Glioblastoma
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Pathology of ependymoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Ependymoma
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Schwartzbaum JA, Fisher JL, Aldape KD, Wrensch M (2006). "Epidemiology and molecular pathology of glioma". Nat Clin Pract Neurol. 2 (9): 494–503, quiz 1 p following 516. doi:10.1038/ncpneuro0289. PMID 16932614.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Ostrom, Quinn T.; Bauchet, Luc; Davis, Faith G.; Deltour, Isabelle; Fisher, James L.; Langer, Chelsea Eastman; Pekmezci, Melike; Schwartzbaum, Judith A.; Turner, Michelle C. (Jul 2014). "The epidemiology of glioma in adults: a "state of the science" review". Neuro-Oncology. 16 (7): 896–913. doi:10.1093/neuonc/nou087. ISSN 1523-5866. PMC 4057143. PMID 24842956.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Prognostic factors of glioma. National Cancer Institute. http://www.cancer.gov/types/brain/patient/adult-brain-treatment-pdq
- ↑ Pathology of pilocytic astrocytoma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Pilocytic_astrocytoma
- ↑ Early detection, diagnosis, and staging of glioma. American cancer society. http://www.cancer.org/cancer/braincnstumorsinadults/detailedguide/brain-and-spinal-cord-tumors-in-adults-detection