Acute retinal necrosis
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Faizan Sheraz, M.D. [2]
Overview
Acute retinal necrosis is a type of retinitis which can be associated with viral infections.
It was first characterized in 1971.[1][2]
One study indicated an incidence of 1 per 1.6 to 2.0 million.[3]
Historical Perspective
- Acute retinal necrosis was first officially classified as bilateral acute retinal necrosis in 1978 by N.J. Young and A.C. Bird.[4]
- The classification was applied to 4 cases of bilateral necrotizing retinitis, of which the patients developed bilateral confluent retinitis progressing to retinal detachment and phthisis despite corticosteroid and antibiotic therapy.[5]
- The first extension of the classification of acute retinal necrosis to unilateral cases was given in 1983 by Hayasaka S. et al.[6]
- They identified that cases of bilateral acute retinal necrosis and cases of Kirisawa-type uveitis presented nearly identical characteristics:[2][4]
- Periarteritis
- Opaque, dense vitreous
- Peripheral retinal exudates
- Retinal detachment
- Vision loss
- Resistance to antibiotic therapy
- Negative test results for bacterial infection
- They identified that cases of bilateral acute retinal necrosis and cases of Kirisawa-type uveitis presented nearly identical characteristics:[2][4]
- In the 1980s, emergence of pathological and electron findings from analysis of vitrectomy and enucleation specimens led to the discovery of acute retinal necrosis' cause as members of the herpes virus family.
- The official diagnostic criteria for acute retinal necrosis was proposed by the American Uveitis Society in 1994.
Classification
Pathophysiology
Causes
The exact causes are not known, but varicella zoster virus is frequently implicated,[7] and other herpesviruses can be involved.[8]
Differentiating Acute retinal necrosis from Other Diseases
Epidemiology and Demographics
Risk Factors
Screening
Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis
Natural History
Complications
Prognosis
Diagnosis
Diagnostic Criteria
The diagnosis of acute retinal necrosis is made when the following criteria are met:[9]
- One or more discrete foci of peripheral retinal necrosis, located outside of the major temporal vascular arcades
- Circumferential spread if antiviral therapy has not been administered
- Occlusive retinal vasculopathy
- A prominent vitreous or anterior chamber inflammation
- Rapid disease progression in the absence of therapy
Symptoms
- Symptoms of Acute retinal necrosis include the following:[3]
- Vision loss
- Blindness may be present in more severe cases
- Excessive sensitivity to light
- Ocular pain
- Flu symptoms
- Redness of the affected eye
- Floaters[10]
- Flashes[11]
- Vision loss
Physical Examination
Physical examination for acute retinal necrosis is remarkable for the following:[12]
Laboratory Findings
Imaging Findings
Other Diagnostic Studies
Treatment
Medical Therapy
- Empiric antimicrobial therapy
- Alternative regimen (1): Acyclovir 10 mg/kg IV q8h for 1-2 weeks followed by Valacyclovir 1 g IV q8h for 6 weeks to several months followed by Acyclovir 400 mg PO bid for chronic maintenance
- Alternative regimen (2), unresponsive: Foscarnet 1.2-2.4 mg/0.1 mL intravitreal injection 1-3 times per week AND (Ganciclovir 5 mg/kg IV q12 for 2 weeks followed by 5 mg/kg q24h for 5-7 weeks OR Foscarnet 60 mg/kg IV q8h for 2 weeks followed by 90-120 mg/kg IV q24h OR Cidofovir 5 mg/kg IV for 2 weeks followed by 5 mg/kg IV q2weeks) followed by (Acyclovir 400 mg PO bid for chronic maintenance OR Valganciclovir 900 mg PO qd for chronic maintenance)
- Note: Ganciclovir is administered for patients with suspected CMV acute retinal necrosis. Whereas Foscarnet is administered for patients who are not immunocompromised
- Pathogen-directed antimicrobial therapy
- HSV or VZV
- Preferred regimen: Acyclovir 10 mg/kg IV q8h for 1-2 weeks followed by Acyclovir 400 mg PO bid for chronic maintenance
- Alternative regimen: Acyclovir 10 mg/kg IV q8h for 1-2 weeks followed by Valacyclovir 1 g IV q8h for 6 weeks to several months followed by Acyclovir 400 mg PO bid for chronic maintenance
- Cytomegalovirus
- Preferred regimen: Foscarnet 1.2-2.4 mg/0.1 mL intravitreal injection 1-3 times per week AND Ganciclovir 5 mg/kg IV q12 for 2 weeks followed by 5 mg/kg q24h for 5-7 weeks followed by Valganciclovir 900 mg PO qd for chronic maintenance
Surgery
Prevention
See also
External links
- http://www.iceh.org.uk/files/tsno8/text/18.htm
- http://www.eyepathologist.org/disease.asp?IDNUM=301330
References
- ↑ "eMedicine - Acute Retinal Necrosis : Article by Andrew A Dahl, MD". Archived from the original on 16 February 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-05.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Urayama A, Yamada N, Sasaki T: Unilateral acute uveitis with retinal periarteritis and detachment. Jpn J Clin Ophthalmol 1971; 25: 607.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Muthiah MN, Michaelides M, Child CS, Mitchell SM (2007). "Acute retinal necrosis: a national population‐based study to assess the incidence, methods of diagnosis, treatment strategies and outcomes in the UK". Br J Ophthalmol. 91 (11): 1452–5. doi:10.1136/bjo.2007.114884. PMC 2095441. PMID 17504853.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Young NJ, Bird AC (1978). "Bilateral acute retinal necrosis". Br J Ophthalmol. 62 (9): 581–90. PMC 1043304. PMID 708676.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Flaxel CJ, Yeh S, Lauer AK (2013). "Combination systemic and intravitreal antiviral therapy in the management of acute retinal necrosis syndrome (an American Ophthalmological Society thesis)". Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 111: 133–44. PMC 3868412. PMID 24385671.
- ↑ Hayasaka S, Asano T, Yabata K, Ide A (1983). "Acute retinal necrosis". Br J Ophthalmol. 67 (7): 455–60. PMC 1040094. PMID 6860612.
- ↑ Lau CH, Missotten T, Salzmann J, Lightman SL (2007). "Acute retinal necrosis features, management, and outcomes". Ophthalmology. 114 (4): 756–62. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2006.08.037. PMID 17184841.
- ↑ Kezuka T, Atherton SS (2007). "Acute retinal necrosis". Chem Immunol Allergy. Chemical Immunology and Allergy. 92: 244–53. doi:10.1159/000099275. ISBN 3-8055-8187-4. PMID 17264500.
- ↑ Holland GN (1994). "Standard diagnostic criteria for the acute retinal necrosis syndrome. Executive Committee of the American Uveitis Society". Am. J. Ophthalmol. 117 (5): 663–7. PMID 8172275.
- ↑ Ford JR, Tsui E, Lahey T, Zegans ME (2013). "Question: Can you identify this condition? Acute retinal necrosis". Can Fam Physician. 59 (12): 1307, 1308–10. PMC 3860929. PMID 24336545.
- ↑ "American Academy of Ophthalmology".
- ↑ Brydak-Godowska J, Borkowski P, Szczepanik S, Moneta-Wielgoś J, Kęcik D (2014). "Clinical manifestation of self-limiting acute retinal necrosis". Med. Sci. Monit. 20: 2088–96. doi:10.12659/MSM.890469. PMC 4226315. PMID 25356955.